合作学习法在初中英语语法教学中的应用研究

合作学习法在初中英语语法教学中的应用研究

学校代码10125专业代码050211山西财经大学硕士学位论文合作学习法在初中英语语法教学中的应用研究姓名李静专业外国语言学与应用语言学研究方向英语教学指导教师潘秀琴2015年2月14日 UniversityCode10125MajorCode050211ShanxiUniversityofFinance&EconomicsThesisforMaster’sDegreeAResearchontheApplicationofCooperativeLearningtoGrammarTeachinginJuniorMiddleSchoolNameLiJingMajorForeignLinguisticsandAppliedLinguisticsResearchOrientationEnglishEducationTutorPanXiuqinFebruary14,2014 山西财经大学学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文，是本人在导师的指导下，独立进行研究工作所取得的成果。除文中已经注明引用的内容外，本论文不包含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的作品成果。对本文的研究所做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式标明。本人完全意识到本申明的法律结果由本人承担。学位论文作者签名：日期：年月日 山西财经大学学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解学校有关保管、使用学位论文的规定，同意学校保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和电子版，允许论文被查阅和借阅。本人授权山西财经大学可以将本学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存和汇编本学位论文。本学位论文属于保密□，不保密□。在年解密后适用本授权书。（请在以上方框内打“√”）学位论文作者签名：指导教师签名：日期：年月日日期：年月日 AbstractTheNewNationalEnglishCurriculumrequiresthatthefocusofEnglisheducationislanguageskillsratherthanlanguageknowledge,butwhichdoesn’tmeanignoringgrammarteaching.Becausegrammaristhefoundationoflanguageformandlanguageskills,studentscanimprovetheirEnglishlearningeffectively,onlyiftheyfullyandsystematicallyunderstandandmastergrammar.Therefore,EnglishgrammarstillplaysanimportantroleinJuniorMiddleSchools.However,mostjuniorschoolstudentsarepooratgrammarapplicationandteachersareconfusedabouttheproblemsoftime-consumingandpoorefficiencyingrammarteaching.BecausetherearesignificantdifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglishgrammar,it’sdifficultforstudentstolearngrammar.Besides,teachersspentmuchmoretimeinexplainingthegrammarrules,whichmakesstudentshavelesstimetopracticeandlosetheirinitiativeandinterestingrammarlearning.Soteachersshouldspendmoretimeandenergyinfindingsomeeffectivewaysongrammarteaching.CLisoneofeffectiveteachingmethods.NNECadvocatestheapplicationofCLtoactualclassroominstruction.Besides,therehasbeenalotofresearchoncooperativelearninginChinaandabroad,whichshowthatCLplaysanactiveroleinEnglishteaching.Forexample,cooperationinlearningisnotonlyabletobebuiltamongstudentsbutbetweenstudentsandtheirteacherintheprocessofcooperativelearning.Bythemeansofmutualcooperation,aharmoniouslearningatmosphereinclasswillbebuilt,whichcanhelpstudentsformagoodmasteryoftheknowledge.However,thereisnotmuchresearchofapplyingCLtogrammarteachinginjuniormiddleschool.Hence,theauthortriedusingCLingrammarteachinginordertoimprovestudents’grammarlearning.Basedonthepreviousresearches,theauthormadeanempiricalresearchontheapplicationofCLmainlyusingMotivationtheoryandDevelopmenttheory.Inthisresearch,theauthorputsforwardthefollowingthreehypotheses:(1).Students’interestinlearninggrammarwillbearousedbyCL.(2).Students’grammarscoreswillbeimprovedbyCL.(3).CLwillmaketeacherschangetheirrolesandhelpthemhavemoreeffectiveteaching.Andsubjectsinthisresearchare80studentstaughtbytheauthorinGradeTwofromtwoclassesofShanxi ModernBilingualSchool.OneistheexperimentalclassusingCL,andtheotheroneisthecontrolledclassusingtraditionalgrammarteachingmethod.TheexperimentlastedfromSeptember,2013toJanuary,2014mainlythroughclassroomteachingandlearning.TheauthorusedtwoquestionnairesandtwotestsasinstrumentandthencollectedalltherelativedataandmadecarefulanalysisbysoftwareSPSS17.0.Theresultsprovedthatapplicationofcooperativelearningtogrammarteachinginjuniormiddleschoolwasmuchmoreeffectivethanusingtraditionalteachingmethods:Englishgrammarscoresoftheexperimentclassgotthesignificantimprovement;thestudentsoftheexperimentalclasshavebeenimprovedgreatlyinlearningattitudesandinteresttowardsEnglishgrammarlearning.Inaddition,thisresearchalsohelpsteacherstofindbettergrammarteachingmethod.ItishopedthatthethesiswillbringsomeenlightenmentforthelaterresearchersandwillbehelpfultoEnglishteachinginJuniorMiddleschools.Keywords:grammarteaching,juniormiddleschool,CooperativeLearning,interest，score 摘要《英语课程标准》要求英语教学改革的重点是要改变传统的重语言知识，轻语言技能的倾向，然而这并不是轻视语法，因为语法是语言形式和语言技能赖以生存的基础。只有系统地掌握英语语法知识、正确地把握英语的基本结构，才能提高学习英语的效率。因此，英语语法在初中英语学习中依然扮演着重要角色。然而，目前的初中学生语法应用能力却极不乐观，而且教师因语法教学费时低效的现状也深感困惑。由于中英语法区别较大，而且语法课上教师以讲解语法知识为主，课上学生缺乏充足的练习，以至于没有彻底理解该语法的实际应用，这就导致学生对于语法学习缺乏兴趣和主观能动性，在语法课堂上毫无生气。因此改变教授的方式和方法，寻找更加合适有效的语法教学方法势在必行。由于新课改强力提倡将合作学习法广泛地应用到实际课堂中，加之诸多国内外关于合作学习的研究也表明合作学习在英语教学起着积极作用。如它强调师生互动，生生交流，利于形成积极的教学氛围，从而达到更好的学习效果。但是合作学习法在初中英语语法中应用的不多，因此作者尝试把合作学习运用到初中语法教学中以提高学生的语法学习。作者在总结前人的研究基础上，以动机论和发展论为主要的理论支撑，提出以下三个假设：一、小组合作模式可以提高学生学习语法的兴趣；二、小组合作模式可以提高学生的语法成绩；三、小组合作模式可以帮助老师转换角色，提高教学质量。作者将其在山西省现代双语学校所代两个班的学生作为研究对象，经测试，两班英语语法水平相当，一个班采用合作学习进行语法学习，作为实验班，另一个班则采用传统的语法教学法，作为控制班。该实验主要在课堂教学与学习中进行，实验时间从2013年9月开始，2014年1月结束。本研究采用的方法主要有问卷调查和英语语法测试。作者对两个班学生实验前后的成绩分别做了相应的数据统计，并对收集的数据使用SPSS17.0进行了分析。实验最终证明了将合作学习应用到初中语法教学的方法确实有效：实验班的英语成绩总体明显进步，而且实验班学生对语法学习的态度也明显改善，英语学习的兴趣明显提高。同时，这一教学形式的转变也利于教师重新思考自己的教学活动中的角色，从而更好的推进更加有效的语法教学和语法学习。 作者希望本次研究可以对初中英语教师的语法教学有所启示，从而推动更加有效的语法教学工作。关键词:初中英语,语法教学;合作学习；兴趣；成绩 ListofTablesTable3-1:GroupevaluationtableTable4-1：ResultofPre-questionnaireTable4-2：ResultofPost-questionnaireTable4-3:ComparisonofPre-questionnaireandPost-questionnaireTable4-4:Groupstatistics:grammarscoresofECandCCinthepretestTable4-5:Independent-samplet-test:DifferenceinthescoresbetweenECandCCinthepre-testTable4-6:Groupstatistics:grammarscoresofECandCCinthepost-testTable4-7:Independentsamplet-test:DifferenceinthescoresbetweenECandCCinthepre-testTable4-8:PairedSamplestatistics:grammarscoresofECinpre-testandpost–testTable4-9:PairedSamplesTest:DifferencesofgrammarscoresofECinpre-testandpost–testTable4-10:PairedSamplestatistics:grammarscoresofCCinpre-testandpost–testTable4-11:PairedSamplesTest:DifferencesofgrammarscoresofCCinpre-testandpost–testTable4-12:Comparisonofteachers’rolesbetweenintraditionalgrammarclassesandinCooperativeLearninggrammarclasses ListofAbbreviationsCLCooperativeLearningECExperimentalClassCCControlledClassLTLearningTogetherTGTTeamsGamesTournamentsGIGroupInvestigationNNECSNewNationalEnglishCurriculumStandardsSTADStudentsTeamAchievementDivisions ContentsAbstract(Chinese).......................................................................................................................iAbstract(English)......................................................................................................................iiiListofTables……………………………………………………………………………..vListofAbbreviations..........................................................................................................viChapterOneIntroduction.........................................................................................................11.1Backgroundoftheresearch....................................................................................................11.2Significanceoftheresearch....................................................................................................31.3Outlineoftheresearch............................................................................................................4ChapterTwoLiteratureReview................................................................................................52.1GeneralstudiesofCooperativeLearning.......................................................................52.1.1DefinitionofCL...................................................................................................52.1.2FiveElementsofCooperativeLearning...............................................................62.1.2.1Postiveindependence................................................................................72.1.2.2Face-to-Facepromotiveinteraction..........................................................72.1.2.3Individualandgroupaccountability.........................................................72.1.2.4Interpersonalandsmallgroupskills..........................................................82.1.2.5Groupprocessing……..…………………………...……………….....82.1.3BasicapproachesofCooperativeLearning.........................................................92.1.3.1LearningTogether(LT)………………………………………………….92.1.3.2StudentsTeamAchievementDivisions(STAD)…………………........102.1.3.3Jigsaw…………………………………………………………..….…..102.1.3.4TeamsGamesTournaments(TGT)………………………………...….102.1.3.5GroupInvestigation(GI)……………………………………………….112.1.4ThetheoreticalbasisofCooperativeLearning……………………………...122.1.4.1Socialinterdependencetheory…………………………………….....122.1.4.2Motivationtheory……………………………………………………13 2.1.4.3Constructivismtheory………………………………………………….132.1.4.4Developmentaltheory…………………………………………………142.1.4.5Student-centeredtheory…………………………………………….142.1.5ResearchonCooperativeLearningabroad.....................................................152.1.6ResearchonCooperativeLearninginChina..................................................172.2Generalstudiesofgrammarteaching...........................................................................192.2.1DefinitionofGrammar......................................................................................192.2.2ResearchonGrammarTeachinginChina.........................................................192.3ResearchonCLinEnglishGrammarTeaching...........................................................21ChapterThreeResearchDesignandMethodology...........................................................243.1Hyphotheses...............................................................................................................243.2Researchsubjects.......................................................................................................243.3Researchinstruments.................................................................................................243.4Researchprocedures..................................................................................................243.4.1Pre-questionnaire……………………………………………………………...253.4.2Pre-test………………………………………………………………………...253.4.3Cooperativeactivitydesign………………………………………………...…253.4.3.1Training………………………….……………………………………..263.4.3.2Forminggroups………………………………………………….……..273.4.3.3Assigningroles……………………………………………..………….273.4.3.4Assigningandpresentingtask………………..………………………..283.4.3.5Performing……………..………………………………………………293.4.3.6Assessment…..…………………………………………………………293.4.4Post-questionnaire……………………………………………………………..303.4.5Post-test…………………………………………………………………….....303.5Samplelesson……………………………………………………………..…………..30ChapterFourDataCollectionandAnalysis.......................................................................364.1Dataanalysisofquestionnaire………………………………………………………..364.1.1DataanalysisofPre-questionnaire………………………………………….36 4.1.2Dataanalysisofpost-questionnaire…………………………………………384.2Dataanalysisofthetests……………………………………………………………..394.2.1DataanalysisofECandCCinpre-test……………………………………….394.2.2DataanalysisofECandCCinpost-test……………………………………..404.2.3DataanalysisofECinpre-testandpost–test………………………………...414.2.4DataanalysisofCCinpre-testandpost–test………………………………...424.3Comparisonofteachers’rolesbetweenpre-cooperationandpost-cooperation..…....42ChapterFiveFindingsandConclusion...............................................................................455.1Majorfindings...............................................................................................................455.1.1CLcanimprovethestudents’interestinlearninggrammar……………….....455.1.2CLcanactivatetheclassatmosphereofgrammarteaching.…………………465.1.3CLcancorrectstudents’learningattitudetowardsgrammar…………………465.2Implication....................................................................................................................465.3Limitation......................................................................................................................475.4Conclusion....................................................................................................................48References..................................................................................................................................49Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................53Appendix1...................................................................................................................................55Appendix2..................................................................................................................................58Appendix3……………………………………………………………………………………...59Appendix4……………………………………………………………………………………...61Appendix5……………………………………………………………………………………..64Appendix6……………………………………………………………………………………..65ThesisPublishedduringtheLearningPeriod......................................................66 目录英文摘要......................................................................................................i中文摘要.....................................................................................................ii第一章引言................................................................................................11.1研究背景...............................................................................................................................11.2研究意义...............................................................................................................................31.3论文的组织和安排................................................................................................................4第二章文献回顾..........................................................................................52.1合作学习的研究概况...........................................................................................................52.1.1合作学习的定义.........................................................................................................52.1.2合作学习的五要素.....................................................................................................62.1.2.1积极互赖............................................................................................................72.1.2.2面对面的促进性互动.........................................................................................72.1.2.3个体责任.............................................................................................................72.1.2.4人际和小组技能.................................................................................................82.1.2.5小组自评.............................................................................................................82.1.3合作学习的基本方法................................................................................................92.1.3.1共学式.................................................................................................................92.1.3.2学生小组成绩分工法.......................................................................................102.1.3.3切块拼接法.......................................................................................................102.1.3.4小组游戏竞赛法...............................................................................................102.1.3.5小组调查法.......................................................................................................112.1.4合作学习的理论支撑................................................................................................122.1.4.1社会互赖观....................................................................................................122.1.4.2动机理论........................................................................................................132.1.4.3建构理论……………………………………………………………...…….132.1.4.4发展理论………………………………………………………………...….14 2.1.4.5学生中心论…………………………………..……………………………..142.1.5国外合作学习的研究概况.......................................................................................152.1.6国内合作学习发的研究概况....................................................................................172.2语法教学的研究概况.........................................................................................................192.2.1语法的定义.............................................................................................................192.2.2国内语法教学的研究概况.....................................................................................192.3合作学习在语法教学中的相关研究...............................................................................21第三章研究设计和方法.................................................................................243.1提出假设..........................................................................................................................243.2研究主体..........................................................................................................................243.3研究工具..........................................................................................................................243.4研究过程..........................................................................................................................243.4.1前问卷的设计...........................................................................................................253.4.2.前测..........................................................................................................................253.4.3.合作活动的设计......................................................................................................253.4.3.1培训..................................................................................................................263.4.3.2分组...................................................................................................................273.4.3.3角色分配..........................................................................................................273.4.3.4任务分配及展示...............................................................................................283.4.3.5活动实施...........................................................................................................293.4.3.6评价...................................................................................................................293.4.4后问卷调查...............................................................................................................303.4.5.后测..........................................................................................................................303.5示范课展示.........................................................................................................................30第四章数据收集和分析.................................................................................364.1问卷的数据分析.................................................................................................................364.1.1.前问卷的数据分析..................................................................................................364.1.2.后问卷的数据分析..................................................................................................38 4.2测试的数据分析...............................................................................................................394.2.1实验班和控制班前测的数据分析............................................................................394.2.2实验班和控制班后测的数据分析............................................................................404.2.3.实验班前、后测的数据分析..................................................................................414.2.4.控制班前、后测的数据分析..................................................................................424.3实验前、后教师角色的变化...........................................................................................42第五章研究发现和总结.................................................................................455.1研究的主要发现..................................................................................................................455.1.1合作学习可以激发学生学习语法的兴趣.............................................................455.1.2合作学习可以提高学生的语法成绩.....................................................................465.2启示.....................................................................................................................................465.3局限性.................................................................................................................................475.4总结.....................................................................................................................................48参考文献....................................................................................................49致谢...........................................................................................................53附件1........................................................................................................55附件2........................................................................................................58附件3........................................................................................................59附件4........................................................................................................61附件5........................................................................................................64附件6........................................................................................................65攻读学位期间取得的研究成果.........................................................................66 IntroductionChapterOneIntroduction1.1BackgroundofthestudySinceChina’sreformandopening-uppolicyin1978,Englishhasbeenviewedasthemostimportantgloballanguage.Accordingly,thestatusofEnglishteachingisincreasinglyimportantinChinaandEnglishhasbeentakenasamainsubjectinschools.Englishlearningandteachingconsistsoflistening,speaking,readingandwriting.Eachpartisbasedongrammarwhichrevealstheintrinsicofthelanguage.Grammaristhestudyoftherulesbywhichwordschangetheirformsandarecombinedintosentences.Studentsshouldobeygrammarrules,nomatterwhattheyspeakorwrite.What’smore,goodcommandofgrammarisnotonlythebasisofcommunicationbutdeterminesitsfluencyandaccuracy.Therefore,grammarplaysanessentialandvitalpartinEnglishlearning.Learnerscouldn’tdevelopotherskillswithoutstronggrammarfoundation,soonlyifstudentsfullyandsystematicallyunderstandandmastergrammar,cantheyimprovetheirEnglishlearningeffectively.Forjuniormiddleschoolstudents,Englishgrammarisgreatlyimportantaswell.Withthehelpofgrammar,studentscanunderstandthemeaningofthesentenceandcomprehendthewholearticle,sogrammarrulesarehelpfulforthemtoimprovetheirreadingability.Inaddition,grammarrulescanhelpstudentsmakewonderfulandcomplexsentencestoimprovetheirwritingability.Thusitcanbeseenthatifstudentsmastergrammarrules,theywillpasstheexameasilyandsmoothly,astheproportionofreadingandwritinginEnglishexamislargerandlarger.However,EnglishgrammarteachinginChinesejuniormiddleschoolisnotonlytime-consumingbutinefficient.Althoughstudentshavealreadylearnedsomegrammaticalknowledgeinprimaryschoolandjuniormiddleschool,grammarperformanceisnotsatisfactory:somestudents’grammarfoundationisstillweak;somestudentslackacorrectandcomprehensiveunderstandingingrammar.InviewofthepresentsituationofEnglishgrammarteachinginjuniormiddleschool,thereisaneedtofindagoodandeffectivewaytoteachandlearngrammar.Theaboveproblemsinstudents’grammarlearningarecausedbythefollowingreasons:1 IntroductionFirstly,becauseofabstractcomplexityofgrammarsystem,grammarlearningisdifficultforstudents,especiallyforsomemiddleschoolstudentswhohavelimitedunderstanding.Secondly,becauseofthesignificantdifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglishgrammar,theyconsideredlearninggrammarasahardjob,ortheyareevenafraidofgrammarclass.Thirdly,itiswellknownthatcurrentgrammarclassesarestilldominatedbysometraditionalteacher-centeredmodelswhichmeantheteacherscontrolthewaysofpresentingandtheexplanationalltheway,whilethestudentsareinpassivepositioninthinkingandmakingnotes.Theteachers’taskistogivequestionsandofferanswers.Ittakesmuchmoretimetolearnwhattheteacherhassaid.Thissituationmakesstudentshavelesstimetopracticeandlesschancetocommunicatewiththeirclassmatesinclass,whichreducetheirinterestingrammarlearning.Allthestatedproblemsofinefficientgrammarteachingarelargelyduetotheteachers’inappropriateteachingmethod.Therefore,teachersandscholarshavetodevotealargeamountoftimeandenergytothereformofgrammarteachingmethods.Inviewofthissituation,theNationalEducationCommitteechangedandproclaimedtheNewNationalEnglishCurriculumStandards,withthepurposeofreformingofEnglishteachingandimprovingstudents’comprehensiveability.NNECSstresses:maintaskofthenewcurriculumreformistotransferthelearningcenterfromgrammarandvocabularytostudent"sactuallanguageusingability.Englishcourseshouldfocusonstudents"learninginterest,lifeexperienceandcognitivelevel.Teachersshouldpayattentiontothemethodsofparticipation,cooperation,aswellasthemethodswhichcancultivatestudents"comprehensivelanguageapplicationability.Therefore,NNECSrecommendedtheapplicationofCLtoactualclassroominstruction.UndertheadvocationofNNECS,manyEnglishteacherstrytoexploremoreeffectiveteachingmethods.TheauthortriestoapplyCLtogrammarteaching.ShereadalotofthesisandmaterialsoncooperativelearninginChinaandabroad,whichshowthatCLplaysanactiveroleinEnglishteaching.Forexample,CooperativeLearningwhichcantakegoodcareofallstudentsandisenabletodevelopstudents"actuallanguageusingabilityinallaspectswhichisreallyinneedofEnglishgrammarteaching.Inaddition,cooperationinlearningnotonlyenablestobebuiltamongstudentsbutbetweenstudentsandtheirteacherintheprocessof2 Introductioncooperativelearning.Bythemeansofmutualcooperation,aharmoniousatmosphereinclasswillbebuilt,whichcangivemorepracticechancetostudentstohelpthemformagoodmasteryoftheknowledge.Althoughteachersalsoorganizethecooperativeactivities,mostofactivitiesarejustquestion-answerform,thatis,theteacherasksastudenttoansweraquestion,andthentheteachermakessomecomments.Pairworkandgroupworksometimesmightbeusedduringaclass.Butthereisnoroleassignmentinallgroups.Hence,theauthorintendstomakeacompleteresearchtoapplyCLingrammarteachinginjuniormiddleschool.1.2SignificanceofthestudyItiswidelybelievedthatifteacherstakestudents’subjectiveinitiativeandenthusiasmintoaccounts,students’learningpotentialcanbemaximizedandtheirlearningcanbemoreefficientandproductive.ThisresearchattemptstouseCLinherownteachingtoimprovestudents’interestingrammarandtheirgrammarscores.Tobespecific,thesignificancesofthisresearchareasfollows:First,inrecentyears,underthedriveofNNECS,thetheoryconcerningCLhasreceivedmoreattention.Itisascientificlearningmethodwhichcannotonlyhelptoimprovestudents’studyqualitybutalsolayagoodfoundationfortheirlifelonglearningandbenefitthemalltheirlives.Hence,researchesontheapplicationofCLtogrammarteachinginjuniormiddleschoolareprovokinglysignificant.Second,althoughmanyscholarsmademanyrelativeresearches,mostofthemareaboutgrammarteachinginhighmiddleschoolanduniversity.Therearefewerresearchesaboutjuniormiddleschool.However,fromtheauthor’sperspective,thecharactersandlearninghabitsofuniversitystudentsandhighmiddlestudentshavealreadybeenshapedoralmostshaped,someofthemarenotwillingtocooperatewithothers,someofthemlikestudyingalone,onthecontrary,thejuniormiddleschoolstudents’charactersarebeingshaped,theyaremorewillingtoacceptnewlearningstrategies.Hence,theauthorintendstoapplyCLtogrammarteachinginjuniormiddleschooltoprovethevalidityandeffectivenessofCL.Third,mostofpreviousresearchesmainlytestifyadvantagesofCLingrammarlearning,butthispaperjustemphasizestherelationshipbetweenCLandstudents’scoresandinterestin3 Introductiongrammarlearning.1.3OutlineofthethesisTherearefivepartsinthisthesis.ChapterOnemainlyintroducesthebackgroundandsignificanceoftheresearch.ChapterTwoisabouttherelevantliteraturereview,definitionsandthebasictheoriesofCooperativeLearningandgrammarteaching.ChapterThreeshowsresearchquestions,researchsubjectsandresearchinstrumentsaswellasresearchprocedures,theauthoralsodesignedasamplelessonbasedontheresearchprocedures.ChapterFourelaboratesonthedataanalysisabouttwoquestionnairesandtwotests.ChapterFiveistheconclusion,whichincludesmajorfindings,implicationandlimitation.zkq201511254 ResearchDesignandMethodologyChapterTwoLiteratureReviewInordertomaketheresearchmorefactual,theauthorstudiedsomeCLresearchesathomeandabroadandrecentresearchesofEnglishgrammarteaching,especiallyabouttherelationshipofCLandEnglishgrammarteachinginjuniormiddleschoolandgotalotinsightfromtheirideas.2.1GeneralstudiesofCooperativeLearningTheconceptofCooperativeLearningwasputforwardinthemid-1960sintheUnitedStatesforthetwopurposes:tochangethesituationsoftraditionaleducationandtoeliminatethediscriminationandsegregationbetweenracialandethnicrelationships.2.1.1DefinitionofCooperativeLearningAsforthedefinitionofCooperativeLearning,differentscholarshavedifferentopinions.Theauthorcollectedthefollowingdefinitionsgivenbythefamousscholars:ProfessorSlavin(1983)fromJohnsHopkinsUniversityisoneoftheaccomplishedresearchersofCooperativeLearning.Heholdsthat“CooperativeLearningisatypeofclasszkq20151125teachingtechnologywhichmakesthestudentsstudyingroupsandberewardedaccordingtotheachievementsinthewholegroup”.JohnsonbrothersofUniversityofMinnesotathinkthat“CooperativeLearningistheinstructionaluseofsmallgroupssothatstudentsworktogethertomaximizetheirownandeachother’slearning.”(Johnson,Johnson,&Holubec,1993).Tosumup,thebasicfeatureofCLisworkingtogether,whichisavitalfactortosuccessofthewholegroup.Inordertoachievethegoaltogethersuccessfully,eachmemberineachgroupshouldhelpeachother.Vermette(1998:32)givesthedefinitionlikethis“Acooperativeclassroomteamisarelativelypermanent,heterogeneouslymixed,smallgroupofstudentswhohavebeenassembledtocompeteanactivity,produceaseriesofprojectsorproducts,orwhohavebeenaskedtoindividuallymasterabodyofknowledgethespiritwithintheteamhastobeoneofpositiveinterdependence,thatis,afeelingthatsuccessforanyoneistieddirectlytothesuccessesofothers.Moreover,thesegroupshavetohaveassignedbytheteacherandtheyhavetoincluderegulardirectface-to-faceinteractionintheclassroomsetting.”5 ResearchDesignandMethodologyWhat’smore,inZhang（张丽霞，2007）,theauthorfoundadefinitionofcooperativeclassroomteamfromVermettea,“cooperativeclassroomteamisarelativelypermanent,heterogeneouslymixed,smallgroupofstudentswhohavebeenassembledtocompleteanactivity,toproduceaseriesofprojectsorproducts,and/orwhohavebeenaskedtoindividuallymasterabodyofknowledge”.Thisversionexplainsthespecificelements，theprocessandaimsofimplementationofCLwhicharewidelyusedbymostresearchers.Sharan,thefamouseducationalpsychologistholdsthat“CooperativeLearningisaseriesofmethodsthathelpsorganizeandpromoteclassteaching”(Sharan,1992).HeemphasizesthegroupforminCL.Inclass,thecooperationtakestheformofgrouplearningandagroupoftenconsistsofthreetofivestudents.Agroupislikeasocialunit,inwhichthestudentsstudytogetherthroughcooperatingwiththeirpartners.Slavin(1996:27)thinks“CooperativeLearningisasuccessfulteachingstrategyinwhichsmallteams,eachwithstudentofdifferentlevelsofability,useavarietyoflearningactivitiestoimprovetheirunderstandingofasubject”.Soeachmemberofateamisnotonlyresponsibleforlearningwhattheteachertaughtbutalsoforhelpingteammateslearn.Wang(王坦，2001),aChinesescholar,definedCooperativeLearningasakindofactivityzkq20151125guidedbyaims.HealsothinksthatCooperativeLearningisapedagogysystemwhichaimsatpromotingthestudyforheterogeneousstudents,utilizingsystematicallyteachingelementsandevaluatingcommonachievement,thenattainingmutualpurposes.Tosumup,althoughtheresearchersgivethedefinitionofCooperativeLearningfromdifferentperspectives,theyshareonecommonpointthattheimportanceofcooperationandcollaborationarestressed.Fromthedefinitiongivenbydifferentscholarsandtheauthor’spersonalunderstanding,CLcanbeunderstoodnotonlyakindofteachingactivitybutalsoasystematicstrategywherestudentsaredividedintosmallgroupsandtheyworktogethertoattaintheircommongoalandobtainsharedreward.Withinagroup,CooperativeLearningfacilitatesstudentsinachievingacademicgoals.Allofthestudentsarenotonlyresponsibleforthemselvesbutalsoforassistingotherstolearnwell.2.1.2FiveElementsofCooperativeLearningTherealcooperativelearningisnotonlytoaskstudentstositaroundthedeskandhandinoneanswersheetbuttohaveadiscussion,helpandtrustothergroupmembers,whichisvery6 ResearchDesignandMethodologyimportantinCL.ToguaranteethevalidityofCL,groupworkingmusthavesomespecificpropertieswhicharedistinctfromotherteachingactivities.AndthesedistinctivepropertiesarefollowingfiveelementsofCL.InJohnson(1999)，fiveessentialelementsareimportantinCL:positiveinterdependence;face-to-facepromotionalinteraction;individualaccountability;socialskillsandgroupprocessing.2.1.2.1PositiveinterdependenceFromJohnson’sperspective,positiveinterdependencemeanseachgroupmemberisnotonlyresponsibleforthemselvesbutalsoforassistingothermemberstolearnwell.ItisvitallyimportantinformingCooperativeLearning.Allofgroupmembersarecontactedwitheachothertheyareaskedtohavethesamegoalincooperativegroups.Whetherthegroupcansucceedliesintheperformanceofallmembers.Whenthegroupworkoperatedsuccessfully,positiveinterdependenceemphasizedthateverygroupmemberisvitalandindispensableforgroupsuccess.Moreover,allgroupmembersmaketheirowncontributionstoachievethecommongoal.Besides,studentsshouldrealizethattheycanimplementtheirlearninggoalsonlyiftheothermembersintheirgroupattaintheirrespectivegoals.zkq20151125Therefore,positiveinterdependenceisanessentialpartincooperationlearning.Theauthordesignsthegroupgoalsandtasksbasedonthepositiveinterdependence.2.1.2.2Face-to-FacepromotiveinteractionInacooperativegroup,eachgroupmemberneeddorealworktogether.Intheprocessofcooperation,theypromotethepossibilityofsuccessbysharingmaterialsandencouraging,supporting,assistingandevenpraisingeachother.WhenstudentshelpeachotherinCooperativeLearning,therearemanysignificantactivitiesofcognitionandpromotiveinteraction,suchasexplainingthewaytosolvedifficultproblems,teachingknowledge,clarifyingforbetterandclearunderstandinganddiscussingthecontentwhattheyarelearningaswellascomparingthepresentknowledgewithperviouslearning.Closerelationshipbetweenthemhasbeenbuiltbyusingthemethodofface-to-facepromotiveinteractioninlearning.Bysharingmaterialsoftheirownandcollectedinformationfromeachmemberandhelpingeachother,theycansuccessfullyachievetheirindividuallearninggoal.2.1.2.3Individualandgroupaccountability7 ResearchDesignandMethodologyAsthesayinggoes,“Nopains,nogains.”Everyoneoughttobearsomeobligation.IndividualandgroupaccountabilityisakeypartinCooperativeLearning.Itmeanseachstudentmustbearandmastersomelearningtask.Everymemberisirreplaceablefortheirowngroup’ssuccess.Everygroup’ssuccessdependsoneachmember’seffortincooperativegroups.Allgroupmembersaresupposedtotakepartintheactivities,andeachmemberisnotonlyduty-boundedtofinishtheirowntask,butalsotoassistothermemberstoaccomplishtheirowngoals.Theeffectiveofworkingtogetherisbetterthanworkingalone.Inordertoreachthegroups’goal,eachmembermustdevotehimselforherselftohisorherindividualgoal.ThepurposeofCListomakeeachgroupmemberbecomeastrongerindividual.Inordertoobtainbetterindividualability,theymustworktogether.Tomaximizeindividualaccountability,Johnson(2004)madethefollowingproposals:(1).Thesmallerthegroupis,themoreindividualaccountabilityis.(2)Testeachstudent.(3).Teacherchoosesastudentbyrandomdrawingtogiveareporttoclass.(4).Teachershouldobserveeachmember’scontributionineachgroup.Inthisthesis,theauthoradoptsthesesuggestionsinforminggroupsandassigningroleszkq20151125andtasks.2.1.2.4InterpersonalandsmallgroupskillsInPantiz(1999),CLismorecomplexthanindividuallearning,becausestudentshavetoparticipateingroupworksimultaneously.Skillswhichincludemanagement,decision-making,leadership,trust-buildingandcommunicationingroupsarenecessaryingroupwork.Theseskillsarehelpfulforstudentstofinishcooperativetaskssmoothly.Soeachstudentmustlearnandmasterhowtoworktogetherandsupportandassistothermembersinthecooperativegroup.Inaddition,theskillsareessentialinthosefollowingaspects:negotiating,comprehending,clarifying,andfindingmoreinformation.Furthermore,groupskillsoninteractionembraceslistening,turn-taking,praising,helping,encouraging,supporting,discussingandacceptingothermembers’differentopinions.2.1.2.5GroupprocessingAllofgroupmembersaresupposedtomakeadecisionhowtoorganizeandoperatethegroupwork,whattheyshoulddotomakesureeffectivegroupworkingandhowtheyareachievingtheirexpectedaim.Afterfinishingonetask,membersshouldsummarizethe8 ResearchDesignandMethodologysuccessfulexperienceandthinkabouthowtoavoidbadaspectsfromnowon.Everygroupmemberneedstoknowwhichactionishelpfulandwhichoneisunhelpful.Theymakesomedecisionsaboutwhatbehaviortomaintain,whatactiontocontinueorwhatactiontochange.InHe（和学新，2007）,groupmembersmastersuitablemonitoringstrategiesbythemethodsofreflectingprocessesofCL,andtheycanlearnfromeachother,shareopinionswitheachotheranddevelopeffectivegroupworking.Fromtheabovefiveelements,itcanbeconcludedthatCLhasseveralinnerfeatures.Inaword,cooperativemotivationandindividualresponsibilityaretwocommoncharacteristicsineffectivecooperativelearning.Itisdifficulttoachievedesiredeffectivenessincooperativelearning,ifteachersonlydependonirritatingstudents’cooperativemotivation.Onlycombinedmotivationandresponsibilitytogether,CLmethodwillhavethebiggestimpact.Therefore,theseelementsenlightentheauthorinlessonplanandactivityorganization.However,perfectcooperativelearningcan’tbeimplementedwithoutpropermethods.Somebasicmethodswillbeintroducedinnextpart.2.1.3BasicmethodsusedinCooperativeLearningzkq20151125ManyCooperativeLearningmethodsarebeingusedanddevelopedinthoseyears.Eachofthemshouldbepaidattentiontobecauseofitsfeasibility.InordertomakeCLmethodsclearanddefiniteforEnglishteacherswhoarethefreshmantoCL,theauthorintendstointroducesomeofthetechniquesthatarewidelyusedandpopularizedinclassroom.FromTu（涂英，2010）andZhou（周琳，2013),themaintechniquesofCooperativeLearningarelistedasfollows:2.1.3.1LearningTogether:(LT)InJohnson(Johnson&Johnson,1993),LearningTogetherisnamedasJohnsons’methodsdevelopedbyJohnson&Johnsonin1975.Insuchakindofcooperativemethod,studentsworkinaheterogeneousgroupoffourorfivememberstocompleteonemutualtaskandoneassignmentsheetandallmembersinagroupwouldreceivehelpfromothersinordertogetarewardasawhole.Thegroupmemberscanreceivegoodmarksonlyifeachmemberparticipatesinandunderstandswhattheyhavelearnt.Thismethodlaiditsemphasisonthebuildingofteams.ThedifferencebetweenLTandothercooperativelearningmethodsisthatLTismorespecificanddepictive.LearningTogethermodelprovidesaconceptualframeworkforteacherstoplanandtailorCooperativeLearninginstructionaccordingtotheir9 ResearchDesignandMethodologycircumstances,studentneeds，andschoolcontexts.LTisusedmostwidelyinmanysubjects,especiallyinsomeliberalartsandlanguageclass.Therefore,theauthortriedtoapplythismethodincooperativeactivitydesign.2.1.3.2StudentsTeamAchievementDivisions(STAD):StudentsTeamAchievementDivisionisdevelopedbyRobertSlavinin1980.Thismethodcanbecarriedoutlikethis:atfirst,teachershouldgiveoutthetaskstoeachgroup.Everystudentisrequiredtolearnanassignedtasktogetherwithintheirteams.Theneveryonewillgettheexaminationwithoutanyhelpfromothers.Thescorestheygetwouldbethefinalachievementofthisteam.STADisakindofcooperativemethodinwhichthecompetitionisamongteams.Thesetwosimilarmethodscontributetostudents’senseofresponsibility,becauseindividuals’performancehascloserelationshipwiththegroupachievementandreward.Studentstrytheirbesttohelpeachothertomastertheassignedknowledgeorability.However,itisobviousthatitcostsmuchtimeincalculatinggroupfinalscore.STADisappropriateforsometeachingactivitywithclearaimandonlyonecorrectanswer,andgrammarconformstothisfeature.So,inthispaper,theauthormainlyappliedSTADandLTtotheCooperativeLearningresearch.2.1.3.3Jigsaw:ElliotAronsonandhiscolleaguesdesignedoriginalJigsawmethodin1978whichaimedatreducingsocialconflictsamongschoolchildren.InAronson’sJigsawstructure,studentsaredividedintosix-membergroupstoworkonthesmallportionsofachapterofatest.Eachgroupmemberworksontheirownpartofthetask.Thenthestudentsofdifferentgroupswhohavethesameassignedpartmeetinthe“expertgroups”toexchangeinformationonthesameparttheyhavecompleted.Next，thestudentsreturntotheiroriginalgroupsandtaketurnstoteachthepartstotheirpartners,Jigsawprovidesstudentswithopportunitiesinlisteningtoothersandpositivelydependingonpartners’information.Buttherearenoquizzesandevaluationstostudents.Students’performanceinclassisindividuallyaccountableandtheiracademicachievementsarebasedonindividualexamgrades.Jigsawearnsagreatreputationforit’smultifunctionalstructureinimplementingCLandisusedwidelyinEnglishreadingclassroom.Becauseeverygrammarcan’tbecutintoseveralparts,it’sdifficulttousethismethodingrammarteaching.2.1.3.4TeamsGamesTournaments(TGT)In1970s，DavidDeViriesandKeithEdwardsputforwardTeamsGamesTournamentsinJohnsHopkinsUniversity.TheessentialcomponentofTGTisthateachofteammembers10 ResearchDesignandMethodologycompetesasarepresentativeoftheirgroupwiththosefromothergroupswhoareonsimilarEnglishlevel.Thescoreofindividualistheteam’sscore.TGTmethodisaprocessofcontinuitytoadjustcompetitorsofdifferentlevelsoastoensurethefairnessandvalidityofactivities.TGTisaneffectivemethodinCL.TGTissimilartoSTADinactivitydesignandrewardbutTGTismorestimulatingincooperativeatmosphere,becausesomecompetitivegamesandquizareoftenimplemented.Buttheauthorthinksthismethodisnotappropriateforherclasswithlargecapacity,becauseclassroomdisciplinemaybeoutofcontrol.2.1.3.5GroupInvestigation(GI):GroupInvestigationmethodisdevelopedbyYaelSharanandShlomoSharanofTelAvivUniversity,Israel.InGroupInvestigationstudentsdecidewhattheywilllearnandhow.InSharan(1976),theteamisbuilduponthebasisofcommoninterest.Theyexchangeviewsexactlywhattheywanttofocuson.Itconductsina2-6studentsgroupwhichresponsibleforapartofthetaskthatisassignedtothewholeclass.Thentheydividetheworkamongthemselves,andeachgroupmemberscarriesouthisorherpartoftheinvestigation.Finally,thegroupsynthesizesandsummarizesitsworkandpresentsthesefindingstotheclass.Therewardwouldbegivenaccordingtotherandomsamplescorefromeverygroupifitmeetsthecriteria.FromallthemethodsofCLmentionedaboveandtogetherwiththeunderstandingofauthor,itisclearlytoseealthoughcooperativemethodsarenumerous,somecommonpointsareexisted.Followingsixcommonpointsaresummarizedbytheauthor:Firstly,certainformofgroupgoalsareusedinmostofthesemethods.Forexample,especiallyinSTAD,groupgoalsaretogiverecognitiontosomegroupwhoachievedexpectedstandardbyrewarding.Secondly,therearetwowaystoachieveindividualaccountability:oneisthroughthesumofindividualscoresoraveragescoreofthegroup;theotheroneisthroughassigningtaskstomakesureeachmemberundertakethedueaccountability.Thirdly,intheprocessofcooperativelearning,eachmemberhasequalopportunitytomakeacontributiontotheirowngroup.Fourthly,competitionbetweengroupsisthemotivationofcooperationinthegroup.Hence,inthisresearch,theauthorshouldpayattentiontotheavailabilityofcompetitionmechanism.11 ResearchDesignandMethodology2.1.4ThetheoreticalbasisofCooperativeLearningCooperativeLearninghasmanytheoreticalsupportsanditsinternalideaisveryprofound.Theauthorreviewsfromfiveaspects:Socialinterdependencetheory,MotivationtheoryConstructivismtheory,DevelopmenttheoryandStudent-centeredtheory.2.1.4.1SocialinterdependencetheoryWang(王坦，2001)mentionsthat“themostimportantandbasictheoryofCooperativeLearningissocialinterdependencetheoryputforwardbyKurtKafkaandhiscolleague,atheoryaboutcooperationandcompetition.”SocialInterdependencetheoryisthemostimportanttheoryamongallthetheoriesaboutCooperativeLearning.Itcomesaboutwhenpeopleareaffectedbytheactionsoftheirownortheothers.(D.W.Johnson&R.Johnson,1989).Ren(任小凤，2011)expresses“KurtLewinconsideredagroupasinterdependenceamongmembers.Anychangeofaspecificmemberinthisgroupwillaffecttheothers.Thismeansthatpeopleofthegrouparemadeinterdependentwhentheyarearrangedthesametask.MortonDeutschmadeanexaminationtofindouthowthetensionsystemsofdifferentpersonscouldbeinterrelated.Hedividedthesocialinterdependenceintothreetypes—positive,negativeandnointerdependence.”Positiveinterdependenceisapositiverelationshipamongmemberswhohavethecollectivetaskanditwillpromotetheaccomplishmentofthetask.(i.e.，groupmembersencourageeachotherandsharetheassignmentinordertofinishthejobofthegroup).Negativeinterdependenceexistswhenthecorrelationofthemembersisnegative.Themostimportantdifferencebetweenpositiveinterdependenceandnegativeinterdependenceisthattherelationshipamongmembersobstructstheachievementoftheirmutualtask(i.e.,membersdiscouragingeachotherordoingwhatwillobstructtheaccomplishmentofthejobofthegroup).Nointerdependencemeansthatwhatamemberdoesisnoeffecttotheothersofthegroup.InDeutsch(1949),howthetaskofgroupbeingstructuredisthebasicpremiseofsocialinterdependence,besides,italsodetermineswhatmembersdoispromotiveorobstructiveorineffectivetotheaccomplishmentandtheoutcomes.Fromtheaboveinformation,theauthorcansummarizethattherearethreefactorsincooperativeclassroom,theyarecooperation,competitionandindividuals.Individualgoalshouldkeeppacewithgroupgoal.Realizationofgroupgoaldependsonaccomplishmentof12 ResearchDesignandMethodologyindividualgoals.Andeachgroupmember’sgoalisliabletoachieveunlessothergroupmembers’goalsaresuccessfullyachieved.2.1.4.2MotivationtheoryInHuang（黄希庭，1991）andShao（邵瑞珍，1997），Motivationisapsychologicaltendencywhichcanarouseandkeepspecialaction,andleadindividualstoacttoacertainsubject.E.C.Tolman,theearlyrepresentativeofthistheory,advancedthepurposivenessofactionwhichimpliesthatreasonofpeople’sactionisthattheywantsomethingorwanttoavoidsomethingannoying.DavidAusubelspecifiedthatthemotivationandlearningiscomplementarytoeachother.Studycanbeimprovedbymotivation,whilemotivationofstudyalsocanbeenhancedbyactionandknowledgeacquisition.2.1.4.3ConstructivismtheoryEducationalpsychologystartedfrombehaviorism,andthendevelopedfromcognitiveandconstructivism.InLiuandGao（刘玉静&高艳，2011），constructionlearningviewdevelopedfromthetheoryofchildren’scognitivedevelopmentin1980s.Learners’learningcourseiscloselyrelatedtohiscognitivedevelopment,constructivismcanillustratethecognitivelawwellbyexplainingtheprocessofstudying,constructingmeaningandconceptsandnarratingthefactorsrequiredingoodacademicenvironment.Toconstructivist,learnerscannotdirectlyobtainknowledgefromotherpeople.However,theycangetinformationwithknownknowledgeorpreciousexperience.Soknowledgevariestodifferentlearners.Intermofthistheory,Chen（陈琦，2001）expressedthatlearnersshouldactasleaderswhileteachersasguidanceintheprocessoflearning,whichisoneofthecharacteristicsofCooperativeLearning.Fromthistheory,it’snotdifficultfortheauthortounderstandthatCooperativeLearninglaysstressoncontradictionbetweenstudentsandcontents,whichrequiresteacherstoarrangeeffectiveandsubstantialcontentforthegroupstodiscussduringclass,andthatmostofthetimeinclassisfullusedbystudents.Thistheoryvariesfromthetraditionalteachingmethodwhichauthorizesthepartoftheteachers’knowledge.ThroughCooperativeLearning,studentscouldconstructandoptimizetheirknowledgestructuresinaneffectiveway.StudentshavebrainstormsandsharetheirknowledgeintheprocessofCooperativeLearning,sothattheycanmakeprogresstogether.13 ResearchDesignandMethodology2.1.4.4DevelopmentaltheoryDevelopmentaltheorystemmedfromthebasicassumptionthatinteractionbetweenchildrenishelpfulforthemtomasterimportantconcepts.Childrencandevelopwellintheconditionofcommunicatingwithcompanions.LevVygotsky(1978)putforwardatheoryknownasZPD(zoneofproximaldevelopment),whichisatermfortherangeoftasksthatachildcancompleteacertaintaskbetterwiththeguidanceandassistanceofadultsormore-skilledchildrenthanbyhimselforherself.ThelowerlimitofZPDisthelevelofskillreachedbythechildworkingonhisown.Theupperlimitisthelevelofadditionalresponsibilitythechildcanacceptwiththehelpofanexperiencedinstructor.Thetheoryshowedthatchildmightlearnbetterwhencooperatingwithotherchildrenofhisage.FromVygotsky’sview,theauthorcanconcludethattheteachersshoulddesignquestionswhichareconductivetobediscussedbythestudentsduringthewholecooperativelearningprocess.Sothequestiondifficultyandformsshouldbetakenintoconsiderationinthisresearch.2.1.4.5Student-centeredtheoryAstotheCooperativeLearning,student-centeredtheoryisnotonlythestartingpointbutalsotheendingpoint.TherepresentativepeopleofthistheoryisCarlRogerswhothoughtthatlearningshouldbemeaningful,itshouldaimatstudents’satisfactionandinternalneeds;knowledgeacquisitiondependsontheinteractionofstudents’fiveinternalmotivationsandexternalconditions.Heconsideredthateitherinternalorexternalfactorscanaffectstudents’study,soteachersaresupposedtoencouragestudentstofindtheirpotential.Inauthor’sopinion,teachersshouldnotignoretheinterpersonalrelationshipsamongstudentswhichhaveinfluenceuponstudy.Astothecontentlearning,teachersshouldfocusoncultivationofemotionandcognition.Inaddition,theteachersshouldteachthestudentshowtostudyandencouragethemtoputforwardnewideas.14 ResearchDesignandMethodology2.1.5ResearchonCooperativeLearningabroadIntheWest,theresearchesonCooperativeLearninghavebeenrunalongtime.ManyscholarshavedevotedthemselvestostudyingandpromotingCooperativeLearning.WiththeguidanceofSmith(1996),theauthortriestolistthefamousrepresentativescholarsofeachperiodandtheircontributions.Datingfromthefirstcentury,MarcusFabiusQuintilianus,afamouseducationistofancientRoman,proposedmassteachingforthefirsttimeinInstitutioneOratoria,oneofhismasterpieces.Heconsideredthatteachingcouldguidestudentstostudyfromeachother.ThisideacanberegardedastheearliestreflectionofCooperativeLearningtheory.JohannAmosComenius(1592-1670),thefatherofmoderneducationintheRenaissance.Hementionedinhisworksthatstudentsshouldlearntogetherbecausetheycanbetaughtbytheirclassmates.Inthelateof1700s，cooperationactedasacenterpieceoflearninginEngland.JosephLancasterandAndrewBellwidelyusedcooperativegroupsinteaching.In1806theyestablishedLancasterSchoolinNewYorkandtookCooperativeLearningtotheUSA.Andthisideawasacceptedbyaneducationist,ColonelFrancisParkerfromtheUSA.Hewasfamousforthecreationofclassteachingwhichstresseddemocracyandcooperationamongstudentsandteachers.Intheearly1900s,JohnDewey,KurtLewin,andMortonDeutshandotherscholarsalsogreatlyinfluencedtheCooperativeLearningtheory.JohnDeweyconsidereditimportantthatstudentsdevelopedbothknowledgeandsocialskillsthatcouldalsobeusedoutsideoftheclassroom.Thistheoryconsideredstudentsasactiveembracersofknowledgethroughdiscussingandanswersingroups.Studentsshouldengageinthelearningprocesstogetherratherthanbepassiveembracersofinformationjustliketeachertalkingandstudentslisteninginclass.InordertocarryoutCLsuccessfullyandrealizethelearninggoal,KurtLewin’scontributiontoCLwerebasedontheideasofestablishingrelationshipsamonggroupmembers.In1970s,DavidKoontsfirstproposedandcarriedoutCooperativeLearninginAmericaandthenitspreadsowidelythatmanyresearchersandscholarsdevotedthemselves15 ResearchDesignandMethodologytothestudyofthisnewteachingapproach.Studentswhoaremorecompetitivelackedintheirinteractionandtrustwithothers,evenintheiremotionalinvolvementwithotherstudents.(Smith,1996)JohnsonbrothershadmadeabigcontributiontothedevelopmentofCL.TheycameupwithmanynewviewsintheresearchofCooperativeLearning.Forinstance,theymainlystudiedontheformsofCL.InJohnson(Johnson,&Holubec,2004),theydivideditintotwokinds:formalCLandinformalCL.InformalCooperativeLearninggroups,teachers’rolecontains:(1)Makingpreinstructionaldecisions.(2)Explainingtheinstructionaltaskandcooperativestructure.(3)Monitoringstudents’learningandinterveningtoprovidehelpinfinishingthetasksuccessfully(4)Assessingandhelpingstudentsprocesshowtheirgroupsworked.However,informalCooperativeLearningconsistsofhavingstudentsworktogethertoachieveajointlearninggoalintemporary.JohnsonbrothershadalsomademanyteachingexperimentsforapplyingCooperativeLearningandofferedusefulinstrumentsforthelaterresearch.In1980s,theeducationistscenteredthemajorityoftheirattentiontotheresearchofthespecificlearningstrategyandskillsinCooperativeLearninggroups.Sharan(1992)confirmedthatCooperativeLearningcreatedagoodenvironmentforthestudentstolearnfromeachotherandimprovethesenseofcooperation.RobertE.Slavin(1996)madeastudyoftheefficiencyofCLandhefoundthatstudentsimprovedobviouslyinperformancesbothatacademicandemotionalaspectswiththisstrategy.AsPanitz(1999)mentionedthatwell-developedinstructionalstrategiesoffermanypotentialbenefitstolearners.ManydifferencesexistbetweenCLandtraditionalmethodsinseveralaspects.Inotherwords,CLisconsideredasthecomplementandbreakthroughagainsttraditionalgrammarinstruction.TheCooperativeLearningmethodlaysitsemphasisonthestudentsthemselves.Inthetraditionalclass,whattheteacheralwaysdoesistopresentandgiveanordertostudents.Studentshavetolistenandrespondtotheteacheronlywhencalledon.Upuntilnow,CooperativeLearninghasproducedsomepopularteachingideasandstrategywhichhasbeenusedwidelybymanyteachersandstudentsinmanycountries.16 ResearchDesignandMethodology2.1.6ResearchonCooperativeLearninginChinaCLwasfirstintroducedtoChinainthe1980sasanewlearningapproach.Thensomeresearcheshavebeendoneonthissubjectandsometeachingareaattemptedtoputthistheoryintopractice.In1993,EducationandScienceInstituteofShandongProvincedevelopedaprojectnamedresearchandexperimentofCooperativeLearningwhichwassupportedbyforeignacademicareas.Theprojectwascarriedoutinmorethanonehundredschoolsatninedifferentkindsofareasandlastedforsixyears.Basedonthisresearchandexperiment,someconceptsofCooperativeLearning,suchastheproperty,principle,modelandstrategywereproducedforthefirsttime.AndthenthevalueandoutlookofCooperativeLearningwasconfirmedbytheeducationalsystemgradually.In2001,NNECadvocatedtheapplicationofCLtoactualclassroominstruction.Fromthenon,moreandmorescholarsdevotedthemselvestotheresearchofCooperativeLearninginChina.ProfessorWang（王坦）wasthemostaccomplishedinthisfield.HepublishedmanybooksandpapersonCooperativeLearning,suchasIntroductionofCooperativeLearningandTheoryandStrategyofCooperativeLearning.Wang（王坦，2002）emphasizedthatCooperativeLearningisliabletohelpstudentsformcorrectcognitionofcompetitionandcooperationwhichcanmakestudentsdevelopinacomprehensiveway.Basedonpreviousstudies,especiallyfiveelementsofCL,headvancedsixbasicideasofCooperativeLearning:interaction,objective,teacher-student,modality,andsituationandevaluation.Besides,thefamouseducatorPei(裴娣娜，2000),fromBeijingNormalUniversity,madearesearchofsubjecteducationwhichprovedCooperativeLearningplayedanimportantrole.HeconsideredthatCooperativeLearninghasmanyadvantagesinpromotingstudentsdevelopmentcomparedwithtraditionalteachingmethod.Thecooperationinclasscanimprovestudents’communicativecapabilityandmakethemmoreconfidentandindependentnotonlyinstudyingbutalsoinotheraspects.BaseonprofessorWangandeducatorPei,somescholarsalsomadeotherresearchon17 ResearchDesignandMethodologyCooperativeLearningfromdifferentaspects.Cai(蔡慧萍，2005),Guo(郭华，1998)andHe(和学新，2007)mainlymadesomeresearchfromtheangleofCLmodeandmethods:Forinstance,Cai(蔡慧萍，2005)madeasystematicresearchontheEnglishteachingstrategyunderthecontextofCooperativeLearning.Accordingtotheexperimentstudy,consideringstudents’individualdifferences,heprovidedsomepracticalmethodwhichsuitspersonaldevelopmentforeachstudenttoimprovestudents’academicrecords.Theauthoralsothinksstudents’individualdifferenceisgreatimportantinCL.Guo(郭华，1998)focusedontheoperatingmodesofCooperativeLearninginEnglishclassteachinginwhichhecomeupwiththreemodes:thefirstoneisfromthetopdownward,whichisusedintheoreticalknowledgewithgreatdifficulty,inthismode,teacherisaninstructor;thesecondoneisfromthebottomupward,whichshouldbeusedinsometeachingcontentwithspecificoperation,inthismode,teacherismainlyresponsibleforgivingquestions;thethirdoneistransversemodewhichbasedonwhatstudentshavealreadylearnt.Thesethreemodelsareusedwidelyinpracticalclassroom.Teacherscanchoosepropermodeaccordingtowhattheywillteach.Theauthortriestousehissecondmode,fromthebottomupward,inthisresearch.He(和学新，2007)madeastudyabouttheoperationmethodsofit.Hediscussedabouttheseatsarrangementandtheimplementationmethodsinclassteaching.Fromhisstudy,seatarrangementwhichaffectsaffectionbetweengroupmembersandcooperativeeffectivenessshouldbetakenintoconsideration.Hence,inthisresearch,theauthormadeherownseatarrangementwhichisdifferentfromotherclass.Besides,somescholarsmadesomeresearchfromtheangleofevaluation,whichisalwaysignoredbyteachersinpracticalteachingbecauseoftimepressureinclass.Guo(郭砚冰，2004)’sresearchfocusedontheevaluationincooperativeclasses.Heproposedthattheteachersshouldtaketheformativeevaluationinteaching.Basedonthisresearch,Wang(王奕，2012)combinedCLwiththesituationofJiangsuprovinceandmadeanempiricalstudyofEnglishgrammarteachinginjuniormiddleschool.Headoptedtheformativeevaluationandaskedstudentstomakeself-evaluationandpeer-evaluationattheendoftheclass.Toensuretheintegrityofthisresearch,theauthorusedhisevaluationmethod.18 ResearchDesignandMethodologyInaddition,therearesomepostgraduatesmadesomerelevantresearchfromtheangleoflanguageskills:Liu(刘桂秋，2011)madearesearchonapplicationofCLtoEnglishwritingteachingofJuniorhighschool.Fromhisresearchfinding,CLcan’tonlyhelpstudentsimprovetheirwritingskillsbutalsoenhancestudents’enthusiasmoflearningEnglish.Butinhispaper,theorybasisisnotenoughandclearwhichresultedhisresearchlackvalidity.Zhang(张宝华，2012)madeacasestudyaboutapplicationofCLinoralEnglishteachingbyasetoftentativeexperiment.Formhisresearch,CLofferedstudentsmorechancestospeakEnglishandsharetheirfeelingsandopinionswitheachother.Hence,CLcanarousetheirinterestandlearningmotivation,increasetheirself-confidenceandreduceanxiety.Onthebasisoftheresearchmadebytheseaccomplishedscholarsbothabroadandhome,theadvantagesandeffectivenessofCooperativeLearninghavebeenprovedandconfirmed.2.2GeneralstudiesofgrammarteachingGrammaristhefoundationoflanguageformandlanguageskills,onlyifstudentsfullyandsystematicallyunderstandandmastergrammarcantheyimprovetheirEnglishlearningeffectively.Therefore,EnglishgrammarstillplaysanimportantroleinJuniorMiddleSchools.2.2.1DefinitionofGrammarInPennyUr(2000),grammarisdefinedasthewaywordsareputtogethertomakecorrectsentences.InHuang（黄新春，2008），“Grammarisadescriptionofthestructureofalanguageandthewayinwhichlinguisticunitssuchaswordsandphrasesarecombinedtoproducesentencesinthelanguage.”ThisdefinitionisgivenbyRichard.et.al2.2.2ResearchonGrammarTeachinginChinaFromZhang(张正东，1999)，in1987,ChinaMinistryofEducationclaimedthattheEnglishteachinghadoveremphasizedlanguageknowledgebutneglectedlanguageskills,soEnglishteachingshouldbereformedtosomedegree.Fromthenon,whethergrammarteachingwasconductedornotbecameadisputableprobleminthesameyear.Theeducatorsabroademphasizeditsnecessity,whiletheeducatorsinChinaattachedgreatimportancetousinglanguageinsteadoflearninggrammar,whichmadegrammarteachingdecreasedgradually.Withtheemergencyanddevelopmentofthecommunicativeteachingmethod,thestudents’19 ResearchDesignandMethodologycapabilityoflanguageapplicationhasgraduallybeenvalued,butwhetherthegrammaristaughtornothasbeenactedasthemainsubjectandcriticizeduptonow.Hu(胡壮麟，2002)saidthatgrammarteachingisindispensible,sowritingagrammarbookfordifferentlevelsoflearnersismuchnecessary.Grammarteachingwasopposedsothatitwasconductedinlowtideinfollowing20years.In2001,theNewNationalEnglishCurriculumadvocatesthatthefocusofEnglisheducationislanguageskillsratherthanlanguageknowledge,butwhichdoesn’tmeanignoringgrammarteachingbutchangingthewaytoteachgrammar.Fromthenon,educatorsandteachershavebeenmakinggreateffortstofindtheteachingmethodssuitableforourChinesestudents.AsWang(王佳丽，2006)stressed,teachingstrategiesshouldbeconductedaccordingtothelearners’actualsituations,suchastheirages,leaningstylesandlevelsaswellastheirpersonalities.Nevertheless,inChina,grammarteachingmethodsgoestoanextreme,whichmeansneglectingtoteachandlearngrammar.InaccordancewithZhang(张正东，1999),ChinesemiddleschoolstudentscanmasterEnglishwhichisaforeignlanguagenotbyacquisitionbutbylearning.BecausethereisnopossibilitytoimmersestudentsinEnglishenvironment,languageacquisitionisdifficultforthemtoacquire.Therefore,mostofthestudentscanunderstandandmastergrammaronlybyteachingandlearningatschool.Meanwhile,Shao(邵有学，2007)presentedhisresearchthatgrammarisoneofthejointbetweenjuniormiddleschoolandhighmiddleschool,sogrammarteachingisveryimportantandnecessaryinjuniormiddleschool.Nevertheless,teachinggrammarisacomplexwork,sotheteachershouldanalyzestudents’actualandexternalsituationssoastousesuitableandeffectiveteachingstrategies.AsWang(王佳丽，2006)held,grammarisnottheultimategoaloflanguagelearning.Instead,grammarisaninstrumentwhosepurposeistofosterthelearners’communicativecompetence.AccordingtoLi(李永大,2001),languageisnotjustsomesimpleseriesofstructuredpatternsorwordsbutsomesentencesandarticleswhichareformedbysomeintrinsicrules,thatisgrammar.Differentrulesformdifferentsentenceswhichexpressdifferentmeaning.Communicationisboundtoflexibleuseofthevocabularyandthegrammarrules.Thatistosay,thecommunicativeabilityhasalottodowiththegrammarlearning.Goodcommandof20 ResearchDesignandMethodologygrammarisliabletoimprovelearners’fluencyandaccuracyincommunication.Fromtheaboveliteraturereview,grammarteachinginChinaexperiencedfrombeingvaluedtobeingignoredwhichseemstobeinaconfusingsituation.However,bysearchingvariouskindsofteachingapproachesandmaterial,theauthorcandrawtheconclusionthatgrammarisindispensableandmustbetaught.Butgrammarshouldbetaughtnotonlybyexplainingitsrulesbutalsobyusingcommunicationandinteractionduringthelearningprocess.2.3ResearchonCLinEnglishGrammarTeachingFromsomecontinuousresearchonapplyingCooperativeLearning,ithasprovedtobeeffectiveinmanyaspects,suchasmotivation,cognitiveability,self-esteem,academicability,interest,psychologicaldevelopment,advancedreasoningandsoon.TheseresearchesmainlyincludeapplicationonCooperativeLearninginreading,writingandoralclassinmiddleschoolanduniversity.ButtheresearchaboutapplicationonCLingrammarteaching,especiallyaboutmiddleschool,isthefewest.TheauthorsummarizedandanalyzedthesestudieswhichappliedCLingrammarasfollows:Zhao(赵燕宁，2008)expressedheropinionintheempiricalresearchongrammarteachingusedCLinuniversitythatcommunicationandcooperationamongstudentscouldnotonlyhelpteacherstoreleaseburdeninlarge-contentclasses,butalsohelpstudentsofdifferentlevelstoimprovelearningeffectivenesstoagreatextent.Wang(王初华，2009)analyzedEnglishgrammarteachingsituationinuniversityandproposedthatCLprovidedcolorfulclassactivities,whichwereusefultomotivatestudents’initiativeandmakestudentsbecomeactiveparticipantsvoluntarilywhencommunicatingwithothers.Butthereisnoevaluationinhisexperiment.Besides,hejustinterviewedweakstudentsattheendofhisresearch,sohisresearchfindingsmayloseaccuracy.Fan(范小航，2009)claimedthatCLwasliabletoactivatestudents’knowledgewhattheyhavelearnt.Byusingpreviousgrammarknowledgeasalead-in,studentswereabletomasternewgrammarknowledgeandthentheycouldeasilybuildgrammarsystemandmastertherulesandusagebylanguagepractice.Toimprovelearners’initiative,understandingandapplicationability,headvocatedadoptingCLamongstudentsintheprocessofgrammar21 ResearchDesignandMethodologylearning.Butinauthor’sopinion,therearesomeshortcomingsinhisresearchsuchasuncleargrouping,whatisimportantisthatSlavin’sthree-elementtheorywhichFanXiaohangmentionedinliteraturereview:groupgoals,individuallyaccountabilityandequalopportunityforsuccessinnotlogicalenoughpresentedinthethesis.AllofZhao(赵燕宁，2008)，Wang(王初华，2009)，Fan(范小航，2009)’sresearchareaboutuniversitystudentswhoembracesbetterself-controlability.Buttheauthor’sstudentsarejuniormiddleschoolstudents,soclassroomdisciplinemustbetakenintoconsideration.Thefollowingaresomeresearchaboutmadeinmiddleschool:Basedontheoriesofgroupdynamicsandzoneofproximaldevelopment,Zhang(张乃千，2011)appliedCLinEnglishgrammarteachingassociatingwiththeactualsituationofseniorhighschoolinordertoarousestudents’learningattitudesandmotivation,toimprovetheirgrammarlearningeffects.Hemadetheexperimenttoproveitseffects.Theresultsofthisexperimentprovedthatapplyingcooperativelearningingrammarteachinginseniorhighschoolismoreeffectivethanadoptingtraditionalteachingmethods:EnglishscoresinEChavethesignificantimprovement;inECthestudents’learningattitudesandmotivationtowardsgrammarandEnglishlearninghavebeenimprovedgreatly;ThestudentshavegreatinterestandhighmotivationinEnglishlearning.Hisresearchprovidedtheauthorwithgreatenlightenmentindoingthisresearch.He(何少珍，2006)didanempiricalresearchwhileWu(吴建军，2008)madeanactionresearchonCLingrammarteachinginmiddleschools.TheirresultsgiveeloquentproofofthatCL’seffectiveinstudents’achievementsandcommunicativeability.Fromtheaboveresearch,theauthorcanconcludethattheaboveresearchisaboutimplementingCLingrammarteaching,andeffectsofCLareconfirmed.However,themajorityoftheresearchisaboutgrammarteachinginuniversity.Thereisabigdifferencebetweenuniversitystudentsandmiddleschoolstudents.ThoughtheeffectsofCLingrammarteachingareconfirmedanddeveloped,asamatteroffact,realandsuccessfulapplicationofCLingrammarteachingarelimited,especiallyinscore-centeredschools.Hence,theauthorwilladoptCLingrammarteachinginauthor’sschool.TheresearchistoexamineCL’seffectsingrammarteaching,whichareaboutstudents’interestingrammarandgrammarscore.However,inChina,inthepresenteducationsituation,howmanyjuniorschoolsand22 ResearchDesignandMethodologyteachersrespondtothecalltoapplyCooperativeLearningineverydayteaching?ThisproblemisseriousinShanxiprovince,theauthor’slocation.Althoughsometeacherstriedtoapplythisteachingapproachinclassroom,theeffectivenessanddurabilityisunsatisfied.Inordertomakegrammarteachingeasy,theauthormadeanempiricalresearch.23 ResearchDesignandMethodologyChapterThreeMethodologyandResearchDesignInthischapter,theauthorwouldliketotalkaboutstudyhypotheses,subjectsandinstruments.Besides,overallstepsofthisexperimentwhichwasconductedonthebasisoftheoriesstatedinpreviouschapterwillbeshownindetail.3.1.HypothesesBasedontheresultsofpreviousresearches,theauthorputsforwardfollowinghypothesestoprovethevalidityofCLingrammarteaching:(1).Students’interestinlearninggrammarwillbearousedbyCL.(2).Students’grammarscoreswillbeimprovedbyCL(3).CLwillmaketeacherschangetheirrolesandhelpthemhavemoreeffectiveteaching.3.2ResearchsubjectsParticipantsinthisstudyare81studentsfromtwoclasses(Class5andClass7)inGrade8fromShanxiModernBilingualSchool,including37boysand44girlsandtheiragesrangefrom14to15.TherearefortystudentsinClass5andforty-onestudentsinClass7.Class5isexperimentalclasswhichistaughtbytraditionalteachingmethodandClass7iscontrolledclasstaughtbyCL.TheyhavebeenstudyingEnglishformorethan5yearsbeforethisresearchismade.AccordingtothecomparisonbetweenECandCCinpre-test,itcanbefoundthatEnglishproficiencyofthetwoclassesisalmostthesame,whichcanassurethereliabilityandrepresentativeofthisexperiment.Theresearcherhasbeenparticipants’Englishteachersforhalfayear.Accordingtoherdailycontactandobservation,theparticipantswillbecooperativewhentheytaketestsandfillinquestionnaires.3.3ResearchinstrumentsThethesisisanempiricalresearch.Inordertotestandverifythethreehypothesesgivenpreviouslyinmorereasonableway,theauthorusedtwotestsandtwoquestionnaires.Twoquestionnairesbelongtoqualitativemethodandtheanalysisofpre-testandpost-testarequantitativeones.3.4ResearchproceduresTheauthormadethisresearchinthefollowingorder:pre-questionnaire,pre-test,activitydesign,post-questionnaireandpost-test.ThetimeforthisresearchisfromtheSeptemberof24 ResearchDesignandMethodology2013toJanuary2014.3.4.1Pre-questionnaireInordertoknowmoreaboutstudents’interestingrammarandtheirattitudestowardsgrammarlearning,theauthorreferedtoZhouLin’squestionnaireanddesignedonequestionnaire(Appendix1)carefullybeforethisexperimentbutconductedtwicerespectivelyatthebeginningandtheendoftheterminexperimentalclass,whilethecontrolledclasswasonlyconductedatthebeginningoftheterm.ThequestionnairewaswritteninChinesetomakestudentsunderstandtheexactmeaning.Allstudentswereaskedtomakeanonymoustoguaranteetheaccuracyandauthenticityoftheanswers.Twentyquestionsaredistributedinfivesections:(1).students’interestingrammarandtheirattitudetogrammarlearning;(2).students’consciousnessofcooperationandcommunicationintheclass.(3).students’grammarlearningmethods(4).students’viewonteachers’roleandgrammarclass.(5).students’presentinterpersonalability.Pre-questionnairewasgiventobothexperimentalclassandcontrolledclasstolearnaboutstudents’realsituationaboutCL.3.4.2Pre-testGoodtestsrequireadequateandextensiveplanning.Someimportantfactorsneedtobewellpreparedbeforethetest，suchastheteachingtechniques，thetextualmaterialandevaluativecriterion.Thegoalofthistestistoknowthestudents’Englishgrammarlevel.Theselectionoftestmaterialsshoulddependonstudents’Englishgrammarproficiencyandwhattheyhavelearnt.TheauthoradoptedtheexampaperfromEnglishWeeklywhichincludedcompositeindefinitepronoun,simplepasttense,frequencyadverbs,comparisons,theinfinitive,simplefuturetense,countableanduncountablenoun,modalverbs,andadverbialclauseofcondition.Thetestswereevaluatedandcheckedbytheauthor.Thepre-test(seeAppendix3)wasconductedonSeptember8th，2013inbothexperimentalclassandthecontrolledclasstotestwhetherbothclasseshavesimilarEnglishgrammarproficiency.Theauthormonitoredthewholeprocessofthetesttokeepstudentsfromcheatingbycopyingothers’answersorlookingatreferences.Itcost50minutestofinishthisexam,andthetotalscoreis100points.Thetestpaperconsistsofmultiplechoice(45%),fillingtheblank(40%)andsentencetransformation(15%).3.4.3ThedesignofCooperativeactivityThisactivitydesigncontainsfollowingareas:training,forminggroups,assigningroles,25 ResearchDesignandMethodologypresentingtask,performingandevaluatingaswellasfeedback.Tobespecific,studentsweretrainedforforminggroups,assigningrolesandtrainingbeforethecooperativeclass;andthenstudentswouldpresentthestudytaskatthebeginningofclassandthenperformthewholeCLactivity.Afterthat,studentsshouldsummarizeandevaluatetheresultsofCLactivitybyself-assessmentorpeer-assessmentattheendofclass.Finally,afterclass,studentsweresupposedtogivefeedbackandanalyzetheirmistakes.3.4.3.1TrainingAwell-preparedclassactivitydesignbeforeclassmakesCLgoonsmoothly.Experimentalclasshasbeenusedtraditionalmethodformanyyears.ItwasthefirsttimeforthemtolearngrammarinCLclass.SomakingstudentsunderstandthelearninggoalandspecificrequirementintheprocessofCLisextremelyimportantatthebeginningoftheexperiment.Ifstudentsdon’tknowwhyandhowtheyparticipantintheactivity,theactivityisfarfrombeingacceptedbythem(VermetteP.J1998).Therefore,toavoidawasteoftimeinCLclassandguaranteesmoothoperationofCL,theteachermustdosometrainingforstudentsbeforetheclass.Thistrainingcosts45minutesatleast.TheteachershouldgiveexplicitintroductionofCLtoallofthestudentswithpatience.Forexample,whyshouldweadoptCLtolearngrammar,andwhattypeofproblemswemightmeetwithduringthelearningprocessofCLandhowwecandealwiththeseproblemseffectivelyintime.ItisbettertogivestudentsanexampleofCLclasstomakesuretheycanunderstandCLwell.Inaddition,somebasicrulesinCLshouldbeclearlyshowedasfollowing:(1).Individualeffort,thebasisofgroupachievementwhichactivatesstudentstodevotetogroupwork.(2).Everyonemustparticipateinthediscussionandexpresstheirindependentopinionsactively.(3).Everyonemustlistencarefullytoothergroupmember’sopinions.(4).Whendisagreementtakesplace,studentshadbetternegotiatewithothergroupmembersbeforeaskingteacherforhelp.(5).Everyoneshouldgrasplimitedopportunitytoshowthemselves.ImplementationofCLisimpossibletobeachievedwithouttheserules.Ifstudentscan26 ResearchDesignandMethodologytakealloftheserulesseriously,cooperativelearningwillgoonsmoothlyandsuccessfully.3.4.3.2ForminggroupsAccordingtoJohnson’s(2004)suggestion,it’scleartoseethesmallerthegroupis,themoreindividualaccountabilityis.Theauthordividedexperimentalclassinto10groupsoffour.Zhou(周琳，2012)notedthatthegroupingofthestudentisbasedonthefollowingtworules:(1).Tokeeptheheterogeneityinthegroupandhomogeneitybetweenthegroup(2).Tocomplywithstudents’individualcharacteristic,learninghabits,learningabilityandinterests.Onthebasisoftheaboveprinciples,eachgroupconsistedofoneexcellentstudent,twoaveragestudentsandonepoorstudent.AccordingtoLevVygotsky’sZPDtheory(mentionedin2.1.4.4),cooperationgivesdifferent-levelstudentsmorechancestotakepartintheclassactivity.Sotherearemutualassistanceandcooperationthroughoutcooperativelearning.Butfrompreviousresearchers,someexcellentstudentsaremoreactiveinclassandhavemorechancestoshowthemselvesintraditionalclass.Inthemeantime,somepoorandtimidstudentsarealwayspassiveinclass,whichisnotconductivetotheeffectivenessofCL.Toavoidthisphenomenonandimprovestudents’participationwillingness,theauthormadespecificassignmentforeachmemberingroup,soeachonehadtheirownrole.Inaddition,He(和学新，2007)discussedabouttheseatsarrangementwhichhasaneffectonaffectionbetweengroupmembersandcooperativeeffectiveness.Hence,inthisresearch,theauthormadeasittingplan.3.4.3.3AssigningrolesToensurepositiveinterdependence,eachmemberwassupposedtobemutuallycomplementaryandlinkingtoeachother.FromWang’s(王坦，2005)perspective,themostcommonlyusedmeansofequalizingparticipationinCLisassigningspecificrolesandresponsibilitiestoeverymemberofthegroup.Soaftertheformationofheterogeneousgroups,theauthorgaveeachstudentaspecificroleineachgroup.Andthentheresearcherlistedeachmember’sroleincooperativegrouponthewalloftheclassroom.Inordertoensurethetaskbeingconductedappropriately,theresearchersettherolethatstudentsshouldfollow:TheleaderwasaskedtohelpteachersolvetheproblemsmetduringtheCLprocess.The27 ResearchDesignandMethodologyteacherappointedsomestudentswithgoodskillsinlearningandcommunicatingasleader.Theleadertookchargeofensuringhisgroupactivitygoingsmoothlyandworkingtogether.Heorshemustbecapableofpromotinghisorhergroupmembers’participationactivelyandmakesurenoonewasfallenbehind.Theleadermonitoredthesituationandperformanceofallgroupmembersandmadesomeadjustmentifnecessary.Heorshewasbothanorganizerandparticipator.Therecorderwasaskedtotakenotesduringthediscussion.Theyshouldwritedownothermember’sopinions.Attimes,theyneededtowriteareportwhichwouldbegiventothereporter.Theywereusuallyaskedtofillintheblankorworksheet.Theteachercouldappointsomeonewithbetterwritingabilitiesasarecorderinagroup.Thereporterwasresponsibleforpresentinghis/hermember’ssolutiononassignedtaskattheendoftheactivity.Heorshewasalsoresponsibleforreportinghisorhergroup’sopinionstothewholeclassandteacher.Theteachercouldchoosestudentswithactivetempertobethereporter.Thecheckerwhowassupposedtomakesurethatthegiventaskshouldbefinishedontime.Theymustcheckuponallgroupmemberstobesureifeachofthemhasfinishedtasksorhasunderstoodthematerials.Theteacherappointedstudentswithearnestattitudeasachecker.Thereasonablepair-buildingcouldensurethecooperativegrouptorunsmoothlyandeffectively.Anymember’srolehasbeenchangedaccordingtotheirabilityandtaskaftertheyplayedaroleforsometime.3.4.3.4AssigningandpresentingtaskTheresearcherassignedthetaskaccordingtothedifficultyofgrammarcontentanddifferentgrammaritems.Differenttasksshouldbeassignedinthefollowingthreestages:pre-classstage,while-classstageandpost-classstage.Pre-classstage:theresearcheraskedstudentstolookuprelevantgrammarmaterialstoleadthetopicintheclassandpresenttheirwork.While-classstage:first,theresearcherusedaninterestinglead-inorintroductionasabeginning.Second,theresearchergavequestionstostudentsandstudentswereaskedtofinishthembydiscussionandthenmadeasummaryorexplanationforclass.Afterthat,theteacher28 ResearchDesignandMethodologygavestudentssomeexercisestochecktheirlearningresults.Asforsomedifficultquestions,theteacheraskedexcellentgroupstosolvebeforetheclass.Next,theteacherorganizedatestandstudentswereaskedtofinishitindependently.Finally,theresearcheraskedstudentstodoself-assessmentandpeer-assessment.Post-classstage:theresearcherassignedsometasktoallgroupssuchasmakingsentencesandsomethinglikeopen-endedcooperativehomework.Andasforotherwrittenhomework,theteacheraskedthemtodoitbythemselves.Finally,theresearchercollectedtheirhomeworktohaveacomparisonamongthegroupsandpresentedthebestgroup’sworkbeforetheclasssothattheresearchercouldgivethisgrouprewardscores.3.4.3.5PerformingAccordingtoDeVriesandEdwards,STAD(mentionedinChapter2)canbecarriedoutlikethis:theresearchergaveoutthetaskstoeachgroup.Eachofstudentswasrequiredtolearnanassignedtasktogetherwiththeirteammates.Theneveryonewouldgetthetestwithoutanyhelpfromothers.Thescorestheygotwouldbethetestscoreofthisclass.AccordingtoJohnson,LTcanbeimplementedlikethis:studentsworkedinaheterogeneousgroupoffourorfivememberstocompleteonemutualtaskandoneassignmentsheetandallmembersinagroupwouldreceivehelpfromothersinordertogetarewardasawhole.TheauthormainlycombinedSTADwithLTapproachesandbasedonfiveelementsofCLtomakethisresearchdoneinthefollowingorder:first,teacherpresentedsomethingaboutnewgrammarknowledge,thenstudentsfinishedanassignmentsheetbygroupdiscussionandanyoftheselectedmembersgaveareportabouttheassignmentandindividualtest.Intheprocessofdoingthis,students’initiativecouldbestimulated,sotheywereabletoimprovetheirlearningattitude.Besides,theyalsogotnewviewpointsandinspirationsfromotherclassmates.Thespecificembodimentwouldbepresentedinthesamplelesson.3.4.3.6AssessmentGroupprocessingisthefifthelementofCLwhichmentionedinChapter2.Johnson(2001)explainsthat“groupprocessingaimstoimprovetheeffectivenessofCL.GroupmembersmastersuitablemonitoringstrategiesbythemethodsofreflectingprocessesofCL,andtheycanlearnfromeachother,shareopinionswitheachotheranddevelopeffectivegroupworking.”29 ResearchDesignandMethodologyTohelpstudentsfindtheirlearningachievementsandproblems,theteacherrequiredstudentstogivefeedbackandsuggestionsfromtheprocessofdoingtheirassignedtaskattheendoftheclass.Everystudentmadeassessmentabouttheirownandtheirpeers’performancewhichconsistsoftheirstudyattitude,cooperativeability,andgrammarmasterydegree.Inadditiontoself-assessmentandpeer-assessment,theteacheralsomadeassessmentfortheperformanceofeachstudent,eachgroupandthewholeclass.Inthisterm,theauthorusedCLtoteachgrammarforfourmonths.AttheendofCL,thesecondquestionnairewasconducted.3.4.4Post-questionnaireToverifythefirsthypothesisthatstudents’interestinlearninggrammarwillbearousedbyCL,post-questionnairewasonlygiventotheexperimentalclassattheendoftheterm.Withthepurposeoffindingtheapparentinterestdifferencesbetweenpre-cooperationandpost-cooperation,theitemsofpost-questionnaireweremadethesameasthepre-one.3.4.5Post-testToverifywhetherCooperativeLearningiseffectiveonstudents’Englishgrammarachievementsandwhetherstudents’grammarscoreswillbeimprovedbyCL,theauthorconductedapost-test(seeAppendix4)whichwasheldattheendoftheterminbothexperimentalclassandcontrolledclass.ThepaperwaschosenfromEnglishWeeklyinJanuary,2014.Thetimelimitandthepaperstandardofevaluationarethesameasthatofthepre-test.thetestconsistsofsuchgrammaritemaspresentperfecttense,verbinfinitive,pastcontinuoustense,until,sothat,althoughclause,unlessclause,assoonasclause,directandindirectspeech.3.5SampleLessonTheauthordescribedspecificproceduresoftheCLactivitiesina50-minutelesson.STADandLTapproacheswereusedinclassactivities.TeachingMaterial:NewversionGrade8,“Goforit”Book1Unit6:directspeechandindirectspeechTeachingaids:self-madecourseware—PPT:directspeechandindirectspeechCooperativegroups:10groups(eachgroupmadeupof4students)TeachingAimsandDemands:30 ResearchDesignandMethodology(1)Enablethestudentstounderstandthedefinition,function,andusageofdirectspeechandindirectspeech.(2)Enablethestudentstodevelopstudents’awarenessofcooperationlearningandteamwork.TeachingImportantandDifficultPoints:(1)HelpthestudentsgrasptheusageofdirectspeechandindirectspeechthroughCooperativeLearning(2)Cultivatestudents’initiativeandpositivityinthisgrammarlesson.Teachingsubject:ClassFiveinGradeTwoTeachingProcess:PartOne:Pre-classstageTheteacherexplainedtheteachingcontent,aimsanddemandstothestudents:thestudentswereaskedtopreviewthisgrammaritembeforeclass.Thustheywerefamiliarwiththisgrammaritem,buttheydidn’thavesystemknowledgeaboutit.PartTwo:While-classstageStep1:lead-inandIntroduction(5minutes)Firstly,theteachergavestudentsthefollowingtendirectspeechsentencesandtheirindirectformsbyPPTtoletthemdiscusstheconceptdifferencebetweendirectspeechandindirectspeechineachfour-peoplegroup.Duringthediscussion,theycouldspeakChinese.1.“WhendotheyflytoLondon?”Iasked.2.“Whatstorywillyoutelltousattheclass?“Couldyoutellme?3.“Dotheyliketogoshoppingwithus?”Heasked.4.“Iamwateringmyflowers.”Hesaid.5.“Iwillgobacksoon.”Tomsaid.6.“Isheplayingwithhisclassmatesintheplayground?”Jimasked.7.“Whattimewillheleave?”Tomasked.8.“HowcanIgettothehospital?”Couldyoutellme?9.“Whyisthetrainlate?”Wouldyoutellme?10.“Whereismyhat?”Heasked.31 ResearchDesignandMethodology1.IaskedwhentheyflewtoLondon.2.Couldyoutellmewhatstoryyouwilltelltousattheclass?3.Heaskediftheylikedtogoshoppingwiththem.4.Hesaidthathewaswateringhisflowers.5.Tomsaidthathewouldgobacksoon.6.Jimaskedifhewasplayingwithhisclassmatesintheplayground.7.Tomaskedwhattimehewouldleave.8.CouldyoutellmehowIcangettothehospital?9.Wouldyoutellmewhythetrainislate?10.Heaskedwherehishatwas.Secondly,studentswereaskedtosearchandsummarizethedefinition,function,usageofdirectspeechandindirectspeech.Question1:Canyougivemetheconceptordefinitionofdirectspeechandindirectspeech?Thirdly,theteacherchosefivestudentsfromdifferentgroupstoanswerthisquestion,andalloftheiranswerswerenearlyright.Fourthly,teachershowedthesummarybyPPT:“直接引语（DirectSpeech）是原封不动地引用原话，把它放在引号内；间接引语（IndirectSpeech）是用自己的话加以转述，被转述的内容不放在引号内。”Lastly,teachertoldthemsometechnicaltermsaboutindirectspeech,justlikewhatisthe“leadword”,“mainclause”and“subordinateclause”.Step2:Givingquestions(10minutes)Theteachergavefollowingthreequestionsonthehandout.Eachgroupwasrequiredtofinishthembydiscussionandhandedinoneanswersheet.Q2:Howmanykindsofleadwordinthesetensentences?Q3:Whatisthetensedifferencebetweenmainclauseandsubordinateclause?Q4:Whatisthefeatureofthewordorderinthesubordinateclause?Q5:Howmanyelementsshouldwethinkaboutwhenwewriteindirectspeechandwhatarethey?Step3:Discussionandcooperation(20minutes)32 ResearchDesignandMethodologyEachgroupwasaskedtowritedowntheanswersonthepaper.Theleaderwasresponsibleforassigningrolesandorganizingthediscussion.Theycouldhaveadiscussionwitheachothertogetthesolutionforexistingproblemsortheyalsocouldaskforteacher’shelpwhentheteacherwentaroundanddirectedintheclassroom.Afterthediscussion,therecorderwasaskedtosummarizethegroupmembers’answersonthepaper.Thentherecorderpassedthepapertothecheckertochecktheanswersout.Afterthat,theleaderhandedintheanswersheet.Tocheckthedegreeofparticipation,theteacherchoseanystudentexceptcheckertodescribetheirfinalgroupoutcomesonegroupbyonegroup.Tomakesureeverystudenttakeactivityseriously,theleaderswereaskedtogivetaskscorestoothermembersaccordingtotheirperformanceintheprocessofdiscussionandcooperation.Leaders’taskscoresweregivenbyteacher.Groups’scoreswerealsogivenbytheteacheraccordingtoanswersheet.Step4:Summary(5minutes)Aftereachreportershowedtheiranswer,theteachermadeacomplementandsummaryaboutthreeelementsofindirectspeech:1.Leadword:当直接接引语部分是陈述句时：that当直接引语部分是一般疑问句时：whether,if当直接引语部分是特殊疑问句时：特殊疑问词2.Tense：当主句为一般现在时，从句可以根据实际情况选用时态当主句为一般过去时时，从句要用跟过去有关的时态，但是如果从句的内容是客观真理时，从句仍用一般现在时。3．Wordorder:从句要用陈述语序Step5:Practice(10minutes)ThestudentswereaskedtodotheexcisesonPage89ofthetextbookbythemselves.Afterthat,teacherchoseonestudentrandomlyineachgrouptoanswerquestions,onequestiononepoint,teacherwassupposedtorecordtheirscoresontheevaluationpaper.Whenthestudentsdidtheexcises,theteacherwentaroundtheclassroomtoknowmoreaboutstudents’proficiencyinthisclass.Aftertheyfinishedthem,teachercheckedtheanswerandmadefurtherexplanationintheclass.33 ResearchDesignandMethodologyStep6:Test(10minutes)Besides,theteacherdesigneda100-pointtestconsistingoffillingblanksandmultiplechoicestocheckwhetherstudentsunderstandthisgrammarpointornot(seeAppendix2).Thestudentswereaskedtofinishitindependently.Whenthestudentsweretested,theteachermarkedeachgroup’sassignmentsheetandrecordedtheirscores.Step7:Self-assessmentandpeer-assessmentAttheendoftheclass,theteachergaveeveryoneanassessmentpaperwhichconsistsofself-assessmentandpeer-assessment,andaskedstudentstofillthefollowingformaccordingtotheactualconditions.(A=10points;B=8points;C=6points;D=4points.)Table3-1.Self-assessmentandpeer-assessmenttable:Self-assessmentPeer-assessmentNameStudyCooperativeMasteryTotalStudyCooperativeMasteryTotalattitudeabilitydegreescoreattitudeabilitydegreescoreByaddingthescoreofself-assessmentandpeer-assessmentup,theteachercouldgetthestudents’taskscore.PartThree:Post-classstage:FeedbacksandevaluationsGroupevaluationswerecarriedoutbytheteacherafterthisclass.Usingthefollowingtable,theteacherrecordedthescoreofeachstudentandeachgroupinthisclass.Theresultswouldbeshownnextclass.Thegroupwhichgotthehighestscorewouldbepastedoneflagasarewardonthebillboard.34 ResearchDesignandMethodologyTable3-2.Groupevaluationtable:ScoreTaskscoreTestscoreTotalscoreGroupscoreMembersAgrandBaverageCDThischapterhasprovidedexplanationforthewholeprocessoftheexperiment.However,whetherCLmethodissuitableandeffectiveformiddleschoolstudents，thesituationofcooperativeabilityandstudents’learningattitudesstillneedtobeprovedthroughdataanalysisoftwotestsandtwoquestionnaireswhichwillbeintroducedinnextpart.35 ConclusionoftheResearchChapterFourDataCollectionandAnalysisToverifythefeasibilityofthisresearchandthepossibilityofthreehypothesis,theauthoranalyzedthecollecteddataandresultsindetailinthischapter.ThecollecteddatawascalculatedwithSPSS17.0,whichcontainedindependent-samples-t-testandpaired-samples-t-test.4.1Dataanalysisofquestionnaire4.1.1DataAnalysisofPre-questionnaireThequestionnaire(seeAppendix1)contains20questionswhichweredesignedtoknowaboutstudents’Englishgrammarlearningsituationandstudents’viewonCooperativeLearning.Allthe80questionnairesgivenouttotheexperimentalclassandcontrolledclassweretotallytakenback.Inaddition,allthereturnedquestionnairesarevalid.Table4-1：ResultofPre-questionnaire题1234567891011121314151617181920号A2022251850252813182330251833636345104333%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%B2018132020283020255050603850202550302550%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%C606062623047426857272025441717125603217%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%Fromtable4-1,itcouldbeseenthatthenumberofstudentswhoarenotinterestedingrammarlearningisupto48.About60%ofthestudentsthinkthatgrammarteachinginclassistooboringtolearn.Wecouldalsoseefromtable4-1that62%ofstudentsarenotsosatisfiedwithgrammarteachingmethodtheirteachersusuallyused.62%ofstudentsbelievethatthechanceforCooperativeLearningisrareingrammarlearningand47%studentsthinkthattheyhardlyhaveopportunitiestocommunicatewiththeirclassmates.Fromtheabovedata,wecouldtellthatalthoughtheNewTeachingReformwascarriedoutyearsago,traditionalgrammarteachingmethod,teaching-practicepatternasthemain36 ConclusionoftheResearchactivitywhichstilldominatesEnglishgrammarteachingatJuniorMiddleSchool.Bythiskindofteachingmethod,studentsscarcelyhavethechanceofautomaticstudyingandtheystillstudypassively.Fromstatedabove,itshowsthatCooperativeLearning,asaneffectiveteachingmethod,whichisnotsowellputintopracticeingrammarteachinginourjuniormiddleschool.Itcanalsobefoundthat57%ofthestudentswhoimmersethemselvesinstudyingaloneandseldompayattentiontotheirclassmates’studyingsituation.27%ofthestudentsevenadoptahostileattitudetowardsthosewhoaregoodatEnglishlearning,hopingthattheygotdissatisfactoryscoresintheexam.Mostofthestudentschoosetobelieveintheirteachersandthosewhodowellinstudyingwhenthereisacontroversy.25%ofthestudentsarenotlikelytospendtimeinhelpingotherstudentsand25%ofstudentsdon’tthinkhelpingtheirclassmatesinstudyingcanbenefitthemselvesalot.ItindicatesthatstudentsarestillweakinthesenseandabilityofCooperativeLearningatjuniormiddleschool.Intermsofattitudestowardsteachers,moststudentsmerelyrespecttheirteachersandtheyareafraidofratherthanfondoftheirteachers.20%ofthestudentsfeelsnervouswhenbeingaskedquestionsforthefollowingfourreasons:(1)theydoesn’tknowtheanswers;(2)theyareafraidofbeinglaughedatwhengivingincorrectanswers;(3)theyareafraidoftheirteacherbecauseofthewronganswers;(4)theyseldomanswerquestionsinclassbecausetheydoesn’tdaretospeakinclass.Only17%ofthestudentsarenotnervouswhenasked,becausetheythinkthattheirstudyingisgoodenoughtogivetherightanswers.Itissuggestedthatstudentsareusedtopassivelearninganddonotfullyunderstandtheroleoftheirteachers,whichisanobstacleinEnglishteaching.32%ofthestudentsdislikecollectiveactivitybecausetheywanttofocusontheirstudyingsoastogethighscoresintheentranceexaminationforseniorhighschool,whiletheythinkcooperativeactivityisawasteoftime.Theyarenotlikelytocommunicatewithotherstudentsoftheirown,becauseitleftotherstheimpressionoftheirweakness.ItindicatesthatjuniormiddleschoolstudentsaredeficientinpersonalcommunicationandCooperativeLearningbecauseofexam-orientededucation.Theyarestillself-centeredandseldomsharetheirstudyingexperience,nordotheycommunicatewitheachothertosolveproblems.37 ConclusionoftheResearchTherefore,itisnecessarytocarryoutthegrammarteachingmethodwhichcultivatescooperativesenseandabilityofstudentsatjuniormiddleschool.4.1.2DataAnalysisofpost-questionnaireThepre-questionnaireisthesameasthepost-questionnaire.Butpost-questionnairewasonlygivenouttotheexperimentalclasswhichcontains40studentsandallofthestudentshandinthequestionnaire.Thefollowingistheresultofthepost-questionnaire.Table4-2：ResultofPost-questionnaire题1234567891011121314151617181920号A8285759095959510757797955795378525679787%%%%%%0%%%%%%%%%%%%%B77207353020123325325152720310%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%C11853202051102182380481303%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%ThedatashowsanobviouschangeoccurredinstudentsaftertheyexperiencedCooperativeLearning.TheygraduallyacceptCooperativeLearning.Theyfeelsuccessandjoyintheprocessofcooperation.Somestudentswhodon’tliketocommunicatewithothersarereadytocooperatewithothersactively.Somestudentswhoneglectotherstudents’learningoutcomesarewillingtofocusonothersanddopositiveinteraction.Somestudentswhodon’twanttoparticipateinthegroupactivityaredeeplyconcernedaboutthecollectiveinterests.What’smore,studentsmakegreatprogressincooperativeconsciousnessandskills.Table4-3:ComparisonofPre-questionnaireandPost-questionnaireTypeNoABC.Pre-QPost-QPre-QPost-QPre-QPost-QLearning1.20%82%20%7%60%11%Interest222%85%18%7%60%8%Learning813%100%20%0%68%0%38 ConclusionoftheResearchMethods1810%67%30%20%60%13%Communicative728%95%30%3%42%2%competence918%75%25%20%57%5%1318%57%38%25%44%18%1433%95%50%3%17%2%Viewson325%75%13%20%62%5%grammarclass418%90%20%7%62%3%1563%37%20%25%17%38%Interpersonal1943%97%25%3%32%0%ability2033%87%50%10%17%3%4.2DataanalysisofthetestsBothapre-testbeforetheexperimentandapost-testaftertheexperimentwereconductedintheexperimentalclassandcontrolledclass.Theirscoreswererecorded(seeAppendix5and(Appendix6)andprocessedbySPSS17.0Intheprocessingofanalyzingdata,thevalue"P"or"Sig(2-tailed)"showsthelevelofsignificance.IfthevalueoftheSig(2-tailed)isbiggerthan0.05,therewouldbenosignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoitems.Onthecontrary,ifthevalueofSigislessthan0.05，therewouldbestrikingdifferencebetweenthesetwoitems.Inthefollowingparts,ECiscalledexperimentalclassforshort,whileCCiscalledcontrolledclassforshort.4.2.1DataanalysisofECandCCinpre-testTable4-4:Groupstatistics:grammarscoresofECandCCinthepretestClassN.MeanStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPre-testEC4090.687511.392021.80124CC4090.85008.775111.38747Table4-5:Independent-samplet-test:DifferenceinthescoresbetweenECandCCinthepre-test39 ConclusionoftheResearchLevene"sTestforEqualityofVariancest-testforEqualityofMeans95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferenceMeanStd.ErrorSig.DifferencDifferencFSig.tdf(2-tailed)eeLowerUpperPre-teEqualvariances.667.416-.07178.943-.162502.27366-4.689004.36400stassumedEqualvariances-.07173.23.943-.162502.27366-4.693654.36865notassumed0Table4-4andTable4-5areaboutcomparisonbetweentheexperimentalclassandcontrolledclassinthepre-test.FromTable4-4,wecanknowthatthedistributionsofthescoresinexperimentalclassaresimilartothecontrolledclass.Accordingtotheindependent-samplet-testinTable4-5,F=0.667>0.05,Sig(2-tailed)=0.943>0.05,t=-0.071,whichmeansthereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenexperimentalclassandcontrolclassinthepre-test.Therefore，itcouldbefoundthatexperimentalclassandcontrolclassareatthesamelevelingrammarbeforetheexperiment.4.2.2DataanalysisofECandCCinpost-testTable4-6:Groupstatistics:grammarscoresofECandCCinthepost-testClassNMeanStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPost-testEC4094.77506.941101.09748CC4091.05008.289471.31068Table4-7:Independentsamplet-test:DifferenceinthescoresbetweenECandCCinthepre-testLevene"sTestforEqualityofVariancest-testforEqualityofMeans95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifference40 ConclusionoftheResearchMeanStd.ErrorSig.DifferencDifferencFSig.tdf(2-tailed)eeLowerUpperPost-tEqualvariances.662.4182.17978.0323.725001.70949.321677.12833estassumedEqualvariances2.17975.66.0323.725001.70949.320017.12999notassumed5Table4-6andTable4-7areaboutcomparisonbetweentheexperimentalclassandcontrolledclassinthepost-test.FromTable4-6,wecanknowthatthereisabigdifferenceingrammarscoresbetweenexperimentalclassandcontrolledclassaftertheexperiment.Fromtheindependent-samplet-testinTable4-7,wecanseeSig(2-tailed)=0.032<0.05,t=2.179,sothereisasignificantdifferencebetweenexperimentalclassandcontrolclassinthepost-test.Therefore，itcouldbefoundthatexperimentalclassmadegreaterprogressinCLthanthecontrolledclassdid.4.2.3DataanalysisofECinpre-testandpost–testTable4-8:PairedSamplestatistics:grammarscoresofECinpre-testandpost–testMeanNStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPair1Pre-test90.68754011.392021.80124Post-test94.7750406.941101.09748Table4-9:PairedSamplesTest:DifferencesofgrammarscoresofECinpre-testandpost–testPairedDifferences95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferenceStd.Std.ErrorSig.MeanDeviationMeanLowerUppertdf(2-tailed)Pair1Pre-test-4.087506.06153.95841-6.02607-2.14893-4.26539.000Post-testTable4-8andTable4-9reflectstheapparentchangeofscoresaftertheexperiment.From41 ConclusionoftheResearchtable4-8,itcanbeseenthatthemeanscoreofECrosefrom90.68to94.77.Table4-9showsthatSig(2-tailed)=0.000<0.001,t=-4.265whichmeansthereissignificantdifferenceofthescoresbetweenthepre-testandpost-testinexperimentclass.ThesetwotablesshowthattheexperimentalclassmakesanimprovementingrammarlearningbyCL.Besides,accordingtotheappendix6,weknowtheaveragepre-testscoreis90.7andthepost-testscoreis94.7inexperimentalclass.Therefore,thescoresofexperimentalclassbeforetheexperimentarefarhigherthanaftertheexperiment.4.2.4DataanalysisofCCinpre-testandpost–testTable4-10:PairedSamplestatistics:grammarscoresofCCinpre-testandpost–testMeanNStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPair1Pre-test90.8500408.775111.38747Post-test91.0500408.289471.31068Table4-11:PairedSamplesTest:DifferencesofgrammarscoresofCCinpre-testandpost–testPairedDifferences95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferenceStd.Std.ErrorSig.MeanDeviationMeanLowerUppertdf(2-tailed)Pair1Pre-test-.200003.98201.62961-1.473511.07351-.31839.752&post-testInaccordancewithTable4-11,Sig(2-tailed)=0.752>0.05,t=-0.318,wecandrawaconclusionthatthereisinsignificantdifferenceofthescoresbetweenthepre-testandpost-testinthecontrolledclass.Besides,accordingtotheappendix5,wecanknowtheaveragepre-testscoreis90.8andthepost-testscoreis90.0inthecontrolledclass.Therefore,thescoresofcontrolledclassbeforetheexperimentandaftertheexperimentarenearlythesame.4.3ComparisonofTeachers’rolesbetweenpre-cooperationandpost-cooperationComparedCLwithtraditionalgrammarclasses,teachers’roleschangesalotintheprocessofcooperativelearning.ThefollowingtableisthedetailedComparisonofteachers’rolesbetweentraditionalgrammarclassesandCooperativeLearninggrammarclasses.42 ConclusionoftheResearchTable4-12:Comparisonofteachers’rolesbetweentraditionalgrammarclassesandCooperativeLearninggrammarclassespre-classWhile-classpost-classTraditionalCLTraditionalCLTraditionalCLclassclassclass1,assignerof1,Organizer1,organizer1,Organizer1,assignerof1,assignerofpre-learningofpre-learningoflearningtasksofCooperativepost-classtaskspost-classtaskstasks2,supervisorofLearning2,correctoroftasks2,Traineroflearningtasks2,Supervisorofpost-classtasks2,Supervisorpre-learningtasks3,instructorofCooperativeLearningofpost-class3,Supervisoroflearningtasks3,Guideoftaskspre-learningtasksCooperativeLearning3,Evaluator4,Coordinatorofofpost-classCooperativeLearningtasks5,Evaluatorof4,AdvocatorCooperativeLearningofpost-classtasksFirst,teachersarenotonlyassignerofpre-learningtasksbeforetheclass,butalsoorganizer,traineraswellassupervisor.Forexample,intheprocessofteachingdirectspeechandindirectspeechbeforeclass,theteacherarrangeseachgrouptocomparethedifferencesbetweenspeechandindirectclause.(Theteacherisanorganizerofpre-learningtasks)Intheclass,theteachertrainsstudentstofinishthetask(Theteacherisatrainer).Duringthistime,theteacherneedstopaycloseattentiontothosestudentswhoarepooratEnglish(Theteacherisasupervisor).Eachgroupthinksoverthetasksandeachgroupmembermakesnotes.Second,intheclass,teachersarenotonlytheorganizer,supervisorofCooperativeLearning,butalsoguide,coordinatoraswellasevaluator.Forinstance，toensurethateachmemberinagroupwouldtakepartindiscussion43 ConclusionoftheResearchpositively,evaluationsheetisgivenouttoeverystudent,sothateachstudent’sperformancecanbeevaluatedquantitively.(Inthisway,boththeteacherandthestudentsareevaluatorsinthelearningprocess.)ForconcreteCooperativeLearningineachclass,theteacherselectsexercisespreparedbyeachgroupandputthemontheprojectorsotheselectedexercisescanbefinishedbyallthestudentsintheclass.(Theteacherisasupervisorandacoordinator)Third,after-class,teachersaresupervisor,evaluator,advocatoraswellasassigner,correctorofpost-learningtasks.Generallyspeaking,inCooperativeLearning,thepost-learningtasksareopen,justlikesentence-makingexercises.Thus,theteacherneedstosuperviseeachgroupevenafterclassandurgeseachgrouptohavearecordandevaluationofeverygroupmember’sperformance.(Theteacherisasupervisor)Theteacherneedstopraiseeitherorallyorphysicallythegroupsthatperformedwellinpost-learningtasks.(Theteacherisanevaluator)Meanwhile,astothosepost-learningtasks,theteachershouldfirstcollectandthenclassifythemforashowintheclass.Normallyspeaking,thosewonderfulonescouldbepostedupintheLearningCornerintheclassroom.(Theteacherwasanadvocator)ThisresearchshowsthatCooperativeLearningisapreciousexperimentonpracticingandmeetingtherequirementofnewcurriculumstandard.Thismodelnotonlyembodiesthepeople-orientedvalue,butalsoputsemphasisonthecultivationofinitiativeofthestudentsandkeepstheclassinteresting,combiningenjoymentwitheducationtogether.44 ConclusionoftheResearchChapterFiveFindingsandConclusionBasedonthedataoftwoquestionnairesandtwotests,somemajorfindingsofthisresearchwillbesummarizedinthischapter.Besides，thischapterwillshowitsexistingproblemsandpresentimplicationandlimitation.5.1MajorfindingsBymeansofdataanalysisofthequestionnairesandtwotests,itcouldshowthatcooperationteachingmethodwasfeasibleandeffectiveinteachingthegrammaratjuniorhighschool.ThestudentsofthecontrolledclassmadefarmoreprogressinEnglishgrammarstudyafterfourmonths’grouplearning.5.1.1Students’interestinlearninggrammarwasarousedAccordingtothecomparisonbetweenpre-questionnaireandpost-questionnaire,wecanseestudentsfounditinterestingtolearngrammarbyapplyingCL,sothattheywouldliketoworkharderandbecomemoreactivethanbefore.Inthewholeprocessofcooperativelearning,studentsshowedgreatenthusiasmingrammarlearning,andmostofstudentsparticipatedinactivitiespositively.Theylikedinvolvingthemselvesincompetition,discussionandcooperationwiththeirgroupmemberstofinishassignedtasks,whichisliabletomakethemenjoyhavinggrammarlessons.Especiallysomestudentswhodidn’tlikeEnglishorwhoarepooratEnglishwouldalsoliketotakepartindiscussionsandcooperativelearningwithhighspirits.Theymadefullpreparationfortheirpresentationbeforetheclass.Besides,classatmospherebecamerelaxingandharmoniousbecauseoftheirhigherinterestingrammarlearning.Studentsbecamemoreconfidentandactivetotakepartinactivities.Forexample,theycouldcarefullyexplaintheirideawithconfidence.Theychangedfrompassivelistenersorreceiverstoinitiativeperformers.Inthiskindofatmosphere,studentscommunicatedwiththeirteammatesandteacher.Theyrespectedandhelpedeachotherevenactedasateacheringroupactivity.Therefore,students’languageskillshaveimprovedthroughtheirgreatefforts.Themembersofeachgrouphadmorecompetitiveconsciousnessandsaygoodbyetothesituationoftime-consumingandinefficient.What’smore,inCL,studentsrealizedtheimportantfunctionoftheirowncontribution45 ConclusionoftheResearchtothegroup.Thus,theymadegreateffortstofinishtheirownassignment.Duringtheprocess,theytriedtheirbesttosearchforandanalyzedthematerialsontheirown,andindependentlythoughtabouttheproblems.Inthisway,students’grammarlearningenthusiasmhasbeengreatlyenhancedandtheirattitudetowardsgrammarwasimproved.5.1.2Students’grammarscoreswereimprovedAccordingtothedadaanalysisofpre-testandpost-test,it’scleartoseethatinexperimentalclass,students’grammarscoresaremuchhigherthanbeforetheexperiment.Fromappendix5and6,wecanseetheaveragescoresrosefrom90.7to94.7.Thereisonlyone100pointbeforetheexperiment,buttherearefour100pointaftertheexperiment.Besides,thelowestpointis53beforetheexperiment,but76pointaftertheexperiment.Therearefourstudentswhosescoresarelessthan80pointbeforetheexperiment,butthereareonlytwostudentswhosescoresarelessthan80point.Andaboveall,thereareonly27students’scoresaremorethan90pointbeforetheexperiment,but36students’scoresaremorethan90point.Onthecontrary,thereisnosignificantdifferentinthecontrolledclass’scores.5.1.3CLcanhelptheteacherchangetherolesandteachgrammarmoreeffectivelyBecauseclassatmosphereismoreactivethanbefore,studentsareeagertotakepartinthegroupdiscussionandtheyarevoluntarytolearnEnglish,theteacherbecomesmoreconfidentandpassionateingrammarteaching.Mostofstudentsbecomegoodperformersandmastersingrammarclass.Inordertounderstandorsummarizethegrammarrules,theyneedhaveadiscussionandcommunicationwithothermembersbyspeaking,listeningandwriting.Theeffectivenessofthisprocessisbetterthanmechanicalmemorization.Studentscanmuchmorefirmlyremembergrammarrulessummarizedbythemselvesthantaughtbyteachers.Therefore,theteacherisnotonlyrequiredtopreparethelessonwellbutorganizeandcoordinateaneffectivecooperativeactivity.What’smore,accordingtothecomparisonofteachers’rolesbetweentraditionalgrammarclassesandCooperativeLearninggrammarclasses,theteacherisnolongerjusttheexplainer,assignerandcorrectorintraditionalclass.CLmakesteachersplaydifferentrolesindifferentsectionswhichmakethemfeelthefreshnessingrammarteaching.Basedonthissituation,teachers’developmentofgrammarteachingisgraduallypromotedandtheirteachingefficiency46 ConclusionoftheResearchingrammarhasbeenmoreandmoreapparent.5.2ImplicationsInteractionamongstudentsisapromisingteachingconceptwhichisadvocatedbythemodernteaching.Theguidingideologyinexploringstudents’ownpotentialhasprofoundmeaningtoourteaching.TheCooperativeLearningingrammarteachinginjuniorhighschoolisanimportantpracticetorealizeinteractionamongstudents.Becausestudentsarethekeytothesuccessoftheclass,onlybydrawingstudents’attentiontoclass,cantheteacherimpartknowledgeandskillstostudentseffectively.Therefore,theteachershouldseestudentsasveryimportanthumanresourcesandmakescientificuseofthem,andthenexploretheirwisdomandactivatetheirpassion.Student-centeredmodelcannotonlyreducetheteacher’sburden,butalsoimprovestudents’abilityandinspiretheirthinkingability,meanwhileitcanmakelearningeffectbetterandbetter.Inthismodel,studentscanestablishtheirsubjectivityandaremoreeagertolearnandexplorenowitem.Therefore,studentswillseelearningasanimportantthingandpleasure.Asforteachers,theCooperativeLearningmodelcanfreetheteacherfromthepreviousstablemodel,changingthedullclassintoactiveclass.Theteacherbecomestherealguiderandhelperintheprocessofstudents’learningwithoutanyrestriction.What’smore,theteachercanfocusonmakingresearchonteachinganddesigningteachingplanscientificallytorealizeteachingreformfurther.Besides,talentsinthe21centurymusthavelifelonglearningconcept.CooperativeLearning,therefore,isnotonlymeaningfulforstudents’presentlearningbuthelpfulfortheirlifelongdevelopment.TheresearchfocusesonCooperativeLearningingrammarteaching,yetitcanbealsoappliedinothercoursessuchasreading,listeningandwriting,whichcanprovidestudentswithbroadroomforCooperativeLearning.Therefore,theteachershouldcontinueguidingstudentstocarryoutCooperativeLearning,andhelpthemmasterscientificandeffectiveCooperativeLearningstrategy.5.3LimitationsFirstly,thisresearchonlyhassomeusualdataandmaterialduetotheauthor’slimitedtheoreticallevelandresearchability.Moreobjectanddirectdataisneededsuchasteachingjournalandteachingvideowhichmakesteachers’rolechangelackabundantproof.47 ConclusionoftheResearchSecondly,thisresearchismainlydonebytheauthoralonewithoutotherteacher’sparticipationsoresearchproceduremaybesubjunctiveandresearchfindingsmaybeunilateral.Thirdly,theresearchisfinishedwithinfourmonths,whichisnotlongenoughtoaffecttheresearchfindings.Fourthly,thereareonly80participantsinthisresearchwhichmayaffectthevalidityofCLactivities,thatis,notallstudentsaresuitableforCL.5.4ConclusionThepurposeofthisempiricalresearchistochecktheeffectivenessofCooperativeLearningmethodusedingrammarclassinjuniormiddleschool.Thoughthefour-monthexperiment,thedesiredaimsareachieved.ThisresearchreallyprovesthatCooperativeLearningingrammarteachingcannotonlyarousestudents’interestsinEnglish,explorestudents’learningpotential,activatestudents’senseofcompetitionandcooperation,butalsohelpstudentslearnfromeachotherandformgoodlearninghabits.Nevertheless,thereweremanyproblemsintheprocessofapplyingCLmethodingrammarteaching.Forexample,someconflictsoccurredinstudents’discussionsandsomestudentsdidn’tparticipateinCLactivity,orsometimes,theydisagreedwitheachother.Atthistime,theyneedednecessaryhelpandguidance,sotheteachershouldofferthemsomehelpbyencouragementandpraise.Inaddition,studentssometimesneedspendmuchtimecompletingthetaskofagrammaritem,inthemeantime,theteacherneedprovidesomewaysforthemtosavetimeandimprovetheirlearningeffects,Allinall,itismeaningfultopromoteCooperativeLearningingrammarteachinginjuniormiddleschool.Moreresearchshouldbemadeinthefutureteachingpracticetoimprovegrammarteaching.48 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AppendixAppendix1问卷调查亲爱的同学们：非常感谢大家能够参加本次调查问卷，此次问卷调查的目的是为了解大家英语语法学习的情况以及目前语法课堂上存在的一些情况。本调查只供教学科研使用，与大家的学习和道德评价无关，所以不需要任何顾虑，请根据自身真实情况如实作答。谢谢合作！1．你喜欢英语语法课吗?A．很喜欢B、一般喜欢C、不喜欢2．你认为语法课的有趣吗?A、很有趣B、一般有趣C、没趣3．你对于老师语法课上所用的教学方式满意吗?A、很满意B、一般满意C、不满意4．你在语法课上参与或参加小组活动的机会多吗?A、很多B、比较多C、很少5．你认同“小组活动不仅可以增进同学之间的交流，而且还能增强团队合作精神”的说法吗?A、认同B、不太认同C、不认同6．你觉得在语法课堂上同学之间互相交流的机会多吗?A、很多B、不太多C、很少7．你愿意课上或课后与同学交流有关学习方面的问题吗?A、愿意B、不太愿意C、不愿意8．除课上听讲之外，你是否还尝试过其他学习语法的方法?A、有B、尝试过C、没有如果你有，请简要写出该学习方法：__________________________________________________________________9．你会关注班上其他同学的英语学习情况吗?A、很关注B、有时关注C、不关注10．对于学习成绩比你好的同学，你怎么看?A．很钦佩B、没感觉C、希望他考不好11．当学习上有争论时，你是否愿意听取其他同学给出的意见?A、愿意B、成绩好的同学我才愿意听C、不愿意12．当同学问你难题时，你愿意耐心地向他解释吗?A、很愿意B、看情况C、不愿意13．你有能力把你理解了的东西清楚地讲解给其它同学听吗?A、能B、讲解不清楚C、不能14．在帮助他人的过程中，你能获益吗?A、能B、一点C、不能15．课上被老师提问时，你会紧张吗?A、很紧张B、有点C、不紧张54 Appendix如果“紧张”，请写出其原因：__________________________________________________________16．你希望在课堂上得到更多的锻炼机会吗?A、非常希望B、一般C、不希望17．你对老师的感觉是什么样的?A、害怕B、敬畏C、良师益友18．你有主动预习的习惯吗?A、有B、老师布置任务才会预习C、没有19．你愿意参加课堂上的集体或小组活动吗?A、愿意B、一般C、不愿意如果“不愿意”，请写出其原因：______________________________________________________________20．如果你和同学有了矛盾，你会通过主动沟通的方式解决问题吗?A、会B、不一定C、不会主动如果“不会主动”，请写出其原因：___________________________________________________55 AppendixAppendix2：随堂测试题：（满分各100）随堂测试题1：直接引语变间接引语一、填空1.“Inevereatmeat.”hesaid.Hesaidthat______never______meat.2.“I’vefoundmywallet.”hesaidtome.He______methathe__________________wallet.3.“Itookithomewithme.”shesaid.Shesaidthat___________________ithomewithher.4.Theteachersaid,“Thesunrisesintheeastandgoesdowninthewest.”Theteachersaidthatthesun______intheeastand______downinthewest.5.“Imetheryesterday.”hesaidtome.He______methathe______mettheday______.6.“Youmustcomeherebeforefive.”hesaid.HesaidthatI______togo______beforefive.7.“Iboughtthehouse10yearsago.”hesaid.Hesaidthathe_______boughtthehouse10years_______.8.“Didyouseeherlastweek?”hesaid.He____________Ihadseenhertheweek_______.9.Hesaid,“Youcansithere,Jim.”He______Jimthathe______sitthere10.Heasked,“Howdidyoufindit,mother?”Heaskedhermother__________________foundit.11.“Wherehaveyoubeenthesedays?”heasked.Heaskedme_____________________been_______days.12.“Doyouknowwhereshelives?”heasked.Heasked____________knewwhereshe______.13.“Stopmakingsomuchnoise,children.”hesaid.He______thechildren____________makingsomuchnoise.56 Appendix14.“Don’ttellhimthenews.”shesaid.Shetoldme______________himthenews.15.“Areyouintestedinthis?”hesaid.He____________Iwasinterestdin______.二、单选()1.There’saredcarparkinginourneighborhood.Doyouknow___itis?(2007重庆)A.WhatB.whoC.WhoseD.whom()2.I’mwondering____LiuXiangwillhavetimeto______themeeting.(2007江苏镇江）Awhether,attendBthat,attendCwhether,appearDthat,appear()3.—Canyoutellme____itisfromheretotheSummerPalace?—Letmesee.It’saboutfifteenminutes’ride.（2006宜昌）AhowlongBHowsoonChowfarDhowmuch()4.—WhereisTom?Doyouknow?(2007济南）---Ithinkhe_____tothelibrary.AhasgoneBgoesChasbeenDwent()5.Tomsaidhe____backinaweek.（2007四川）AwillcomeBwouldcomeCcome()6.Idon’tknowifit____tomorrow.Ifit___,I’llstayathome.AWillrain,rainsBrains,willrainCwillrain,willrainDrains,rains57 AppendixAppendix3:Pre-test:语法专练【经典练习】单项选择。()1.Lucy,seeyou______Mondaymorning.A.atB.inC.forD.on()2.Hewillbeback_______aquarterpastthree.A.inB.onC.atD.till()3.MyfriendJackwillcometoChina______May,2014.A.onB.atC.inD.till()4.—Whattimedoyouusuallyhaveyourfirstclass?—______eighto’clock______themorning.A.At;onB.At;inC.On;inD.On;at()5._______acoldwinterevening,thatfamousartistdied.A.WithB.AtC.InD.On()6.Danny,youmustfinishthework______seveno’clockthisevening.A.byB.tillC.untilD.to()7.Myparentsusuallytakeawalk______dinnertokeephealthy.A.atB.ofC.duringD.after()8.Shesaysshewon’tbehere______August6and9.A.untilB.betweenC.forD.by()9.JanehasstudiedChinese______twoyearsago.A.sinceB.forC.atD.in()10.—Youplaythepianosowell.Howlonghaveyoulearnedit?—______fouryears.A.ForB.InC.ByD.Since()11.—WhenwillthetrainD26arrive?—______fiveminutes.A.InB.AfterC.ForD.By()12.TheSmithswillliveinShanghai______thissummer.A.betweenB.duringC.inD.at()13.WeiLan’sruleris_______herpencil-box.A.inB.onC.behindD.at()14.Look!Therearesomanyapples_______thetree.A.beforeB.onC.inD.at()15.Thevisitors______HongKongarrived______ShanghaiStationyesterdaymorning.A.from;atB.of;toC.from;inD.of;on()16.Thedogwaskilled______ayoungman______astick.A.by;byB.with;withC.by;inD.by;with()17.ShehasimprovedherEnglish______listeningtotapesandreadinglotsofbooks.A.withB.onC.byD.for58 Appendix()18.Infact,youcanalsosolvetheproblem_______anotherway.A.inB.withC.onD.by()19.Let’shelptheblindmango_______thestreet.A.overB.throughC.acrossD.past()20.Thereisanewbridge______theriver.A.aboveB.overC.onD.in()21.Taiwanis______thesoutheastofFujian.It’s______thesoutheastofChina.A.on;inB.to;inC.on;toD.to;to()22.______Chinese,MarycanspeakGerman,JapaneseandFrench.A.ButB.BesideC.ExceptD.Besides()23.—Yoursweaterlooksnice,isitmade______wool?—Yes,andit’smade______Shanghai.A.of;byB.of;inC.from;inD.from;of()24.Mikeistheshortestofthestudents,sohesits______theclassroom.A.inthefrontofB.behindC.infrontofD.before()25.Tomorrowwe’regoingtoXinhuPark.Youcancomewithus______youcanmeetusattheschoolgate.A.andB.butC.unlessD.then()26.Itisaverybeautifulhouse______ithasn’tgotagarden.A.butB.andC.soD.or()27.______Tom______Maryplaystheviolinwell,sotheycanteachyou.A.Neither;norB.Notonly;butalsoC.Both;andD.Either;or()28.Kate,myfriendiswaitingoutside______Imustgonow.A.orB.butC.soD.though()29.—CanyoutellmesomethingaboutHongKong?—I’msorry.______I______Jackhasbeenthere.A.Either;orB.Neither;norC.Both;andD.Notonly;butalso()30.Myaunthasbeenteachinginthisschool______shewastwenty-twoyearsold.A.sinceB.forC.untilD.after【即时操练】用方框中所给的介词填空，每词限用一次。underinonbehindfrom1.Ihearourteacherwillbeback________threeweeks.2.Mikeistallerthanme,sohestands________me.3.Howabouthavingarest_______thetree?4.Ourschoolisdifferent________theirs.5.WealllikeTina,becauseshealwayshasabigsmile________herface.atabovetosincethrough6.IhopethatIcango________therainforestoneday.7.Look!Theplaneisflying________thecloud.59 Appendix8.LittleLilyisgood_________cooking.9.Shenyanglies_______thenorthofDalian.10.ZhangLihasbeenskiing________nineo’clock.inonbeforeexceptof11.Mysistereatsallkindsofmeat________fish.12.JohnleftforBeijing________averycoldmorningofDecember.13.Lotsofstudentsareinterested_________playingcomputergames.14.Thiskindoftableismade________plastic.15.Youmustcomeback________8:00o’clock.Themeetingwillbeginthen.nexttobelowagainstbyinsteadof16.Marymadeatravelplan,butherparentswere_________it.17.Youshouldgooutforawalk_________workingallthetime.18.MrSmithgoestowork_________buseveryday.19.Sorry,wecan’tsellthesweater_________200yuan.20.Theschoollibraryis_________ourclassroom.三、句型转换1.Helentmeabook.(换一种说法)_____________________________2.Hebroughtapresentforhisson.(换一种说法)_______________________________3.IhavebeentoMacaubefore.(改否定句)I_________beentoMacaubefore.4.Heisafriendofmymother’s.(同义转换)Heis_______________________.Appendix4:Post-test【经典练习】单项选择。()1.Davidwillmisstheplane______hehurriesup.A.onceB.ifC.whenD.unless()2.It’saseriousproblem.Ican’tdecide______MissBlackcomesback.A.soB.whileC.untilD.since()3.Isentmystorybooktomysister______Ilikeditverymuch.A.ifB.thoughC.whenD.before()4.You’dbetterlookupthenewwordinthedictionary_____youdon’tknowit.A.ifB.soC.thoughD.whether()5.Myaunthasbeenteachinginthisschool______shewastwenty-twoyearsold.A.sinceB.forC.untilD.after()6.Remembertowashyourhands_______youhavedinner,mychild.A.untilB.beforeC.whenD.while()7.Ihavestillkeptthewatch______itwasgivenbymygrandfatherseveralyearsago.A.becauseB.soC.untilD.if()8.MyfatherlikeswatchingTV______heishavingbreakfast.A.thoughB.becauseC.untilD.while()9.ItoldTonytheexcitednews______hecamebackhomelastnight.A.sothatB.assoonasC.howeverD.until()10.—Whatshallwedonow?60 Appendix—______it’srainingheavily,let’sstayathome.A.SinceB.SoC.ThoughD.If()11.How______thechildrenare!A.happyB.happilyC.happierD.happiest()12.Thefishsmells______,althoughitlooksallright.A.goodB.wellC.badD.badly()13.Theboyis______thanbefore.Why?A.thinB.thinnestC.muchmorethinD.muchthinner()14.Let’sdoit______.Thereisonlyfiveminutesleft.A.quickB.quicklyC.slowD.slowly()15.Iwatchedamovielastnight.Itis______oneI’veeverwatched.A.interestingB.moreinterestingC.muchinterestingD.themostinteresting()16.Ourfamilyhasboughtacarsowecantravel______thanbefore.A.easilyB.moreeasilyC.lesseasilyD.mosteasily()17.Hecan’tplaytheviolinso______ashisfather.A.goodB.betterC.wellD.best()18.______youstudy,_______marksyou’llget.A.Harder;betterB.Theharder;betterC.Harder;thebetterD.Theharder;thebetter()19.—What’syourfavoritesport,Jane?—Swimming.It’s_______ofall.A.easierB.moredifficultC.themostinterestingD.themostboring()20.—Jack,lookatthatmodelcar.—Itlookslikearealone,butit’sjust______.A.smallB.verysmallC.smallerD.smallest()21.Tom’sauntworksin_______bighospitalinNanjing.A.anB.aC.theD./()22.Isherhairshorterthan______.A.meB.myC.mineD.I()23.–When_______back?--Icamebackjustnow.A.didyoucomeB.haveyoucomeC.willyoucomeD.areyougoingtocome()24.Iwenttocall______you_____youruncle’shousebutyouwerenotin.A.at;inB.in;atC.on;atD.at;on()25.Ofallthestudentsinmyclassheis______.A.thetallB.thetallestC.thetallerD.tall()26.Hesaidhewouldcomeback_____threedays.A.inB.onC.tillD.until()27.Thetripmusthavebeenvery______.Youcanseethe______smileonherface.61 AppendixA.exciting;excitedB.excited;excitingC.exciting;excitingD.excited;excited()28.---Ifailedintheexam.Youknow…---I’msorrytohearthat.Butgood______nexttime.A.luckB.matterC.tryD.wish()29.Theoldmanis________hisgrandsonbecauseheworksveryhard.A.proudB.proudinC.proudofD.proudwith()30.Thehouse________inthe1976Tangshanearthquake,butwehaverepairedit.A.damagedB.damagingC.wasdamagedD.todamage【即时操练】用方框中所给的连词填空，每词限用一次。althoughbecauseandifbut1.Janewenttobedearly______shewastootired.2.Workhard________youwillsucceedoneday.3.________itwasraining,theboywenttotheplaygroundtoplay.4.Tomapologized,______Iwouldn’tforgivehim.5.________ImeetTony,Iwillaskhimtocallyou.whenuntilorsincewhether6.Thebabyisonlyoneyearold,sohecan’tspeak________write.7.Jimisdoingthehomework________Igethome.8.It’salongtime_________wemetlasttime.9.Thelittlegirldidn’tgotobed________hermothercameback.10.________hedrivesortakesabus,he’llbehereontime.such…thatas…aseither…ornotonly…butalsoboth…and11.LiGuangis________kind________histwinbrotherLiYang.12.Hetoldus________afunnystory________wealllaughed.13.________mymother________myfatherareteachersandtheyworkinthesameschool.14.Wejustneedoneofyouforthegame.________you________yourbrothercanjoinus.15.MrZhangisagoodteacher.Hehas________knowledge________experience.【经典练习】用所给单词的适当形式填空。1.Theweatherreportsaysitwillbe________(cloud)tomorrow.2.Watch________(careful),andyouwillfindthedifferencesbetweenthetwopictures.3.Mysisterlooks________(happy)becauseIbrokehercup.4.Thenurseisvery________(friend)tothesepatients.5.Weallhopeyourbabygrows________(healthy).6.XiaoYuisas_________(tall)asWangJing.7.________(lucky),thedamagewasnotserious!三、句型转换1.Lucyislessathleticthanme.(同义句)62 AppendixLucyis___________________________me.2.Johnis22yearsold.Judyis20yearsold.(合并为一句)Johnis___________________________Judy.3.Lucyisquiet.Lilyisquiet,too.(合并为一句)Lucyis_____________________Lily.4.Thismathproblemisasdifficultasthatone.(改为否定句)Thismathproblemis____________________________thatone.5.Mysisterisbetteratsportsthanme.(同义句)Iamnot__________atsports_____mysister.63 AppendixAppendix5:ThePre-testandPost-testscoresofCC姓名测前语法测后语法王至柔9898冯渊博8788王洪骞8996何曼凝9899王真真9795鲁宏泰9084郭智琛9895石成岳6481孙宇馨9796贺潇宇9596邓淳潆6457王雪晨9794宗子昕9091高晓洁9595李玮新9091郑惠丹8689郭倩钰10098亢祁煊8988刘嘉航8990张翀9899郭家成9996周敏烨9799鲍伯臻9898赵宁馨7478曹昊泽8683范慧娟9092王佳琪9795赵澜雅9897张琳薇9794付国安9491董千文9390郭琛旻7371王乐天9290曹千惠8285郅骞斗9195李光宇9296李可心9490张喆淼9091张佳奇9810064 Appendix郭世娴8891总分36343642均分90.8589.94118Appendix6:ThePre-testandPost-testscoresofEC姓名测前测后王昕阳8585陈书洋8591刘竟川9091刘权辉9899董嘉琪8993王雅慧9899李沛锦9897张晓东5379刘婧9799李喆宇5667侯欣悦9796郝承远9494杨泽林61.576贺禹超8896王泽宇9996樊加宝9799张子尧9899赵英凡9698王莉琼99100宋一畅98100王馨慰9898武诗嘉96100李百川9899王逸云9296施沐辰9196吴昊9094胡靖雨100100丰思飏9598张鸿飞8899王雅慧9095刘佳欣7092杨尚京9092宋嘉伟8797杨舒雅9896刘权辉9996武汉男969965 Appendix冯泽宇99100聂佳琪8998郭亦威8993暴浩彤9699总分3627.53791均分90.687594.77566 AppendixThesisPublishedduringtheLearningPeriod初中英语阅读课堂的导入策略山西财经大学经贸外语学院2011级外国语言学与应用语言学专业外语教学研究方向李静67